Chapter 1: The Foundations: Logic and Proofs: Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications

Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications
Chapter 1: The Foundations:

Logic and Proofs
Lingma Acheson (linglu@iupui.edu)

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Department of Computer and Information Science, IUPUI
1.3 Predicates and Quantifiers
Predicates
 Statements involving variables are neither true
nor false.
 E.g. “x > 3”, “x = y + 3”, “x + y = z”
 “x is greater than 3”
 “x”: subject of the statement
 “is greater than 3”: the predicate
 We can denote the statement “x is greater than
3” by P(x), where P denotes the predicate and x
is the variable.
 Once a value is assigned to the variable x, the
statement P(x) becomes a proposition and has a
truth value.
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 Example: Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 3.”
What are the truth values of P(4) and P(2)?
Solution: P(4) – “4 > 3”, true
P(3) – “2 > 3”, false
 Example: Let Q(x,y) denote the statement “x = y
+ 3.” What are the truth values of the
propositions Q(1,2) and Q(3,0)?
Solution: Q(1,2) – “1 = 2 + 3” , false
Q(3,0) – “3 = 0 + 3”, true
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 Example: Let A(c,n) denote the statement “Computer c is
connected to network n”, where c is a variable
representing a computer and n is a variable representing a
network. Suppose that the computer MATH1 is connected
to network CAMPUS2, but not to network CAMPUS1.
What are the values of A(MATH1, CAMPUS1) and
A(MATH1, CAMPUS2)?
Solution: A(MATH1, CAMPUS1) – “MATH1 is connect to CAMPUS1”, false
A(MATH1, CAMPUS2) – “MATH1 is connect to CAMPUS2”, true
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 A statement involving n variables x1, x2, …,

xn can be denoted by P(x1, x2, …, xn).
 A statement of the form P(x1, x2, …, xn) is
the value of the propositional function P at
the n-tuple (x1, x2, …, xn), and P is also
called a n-place predicate or a n-ary
predicate.
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 Example:
“ if x > 0 then x:= x + 1”
When the statement is encountered, the
value if x is inserted into P(x).
If P(x) is true, x is increased by 1.
If P(x) is false, x is not changed.
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Quantifiers
 Quantification: express the extent to which
a predicate is true over a range of
elements.
 Universal quantification: a predicate is
true for every element under consideration
 Existential quantification: a predicate is
true for one or more element under
consideration
 A domain must be specified. 7
DEFINITION 1
The universal quantification of P(x) is the statement
“P(x) for all values of x in the domain.”
The notation xP(x) denotes the universal quantification of P(x). Here  is
called the Universal Quantifier. We read xP(x) as “for all xP(x)” or “for
every xP(x).” An element for which P(x) is false is called a counterexample
of xP(x).
Example: Let P(x) be the statement “x + 1 > x.” What is the

truth value of the quantification xP(x), where the domain
consists of all real numbers?
Solution: Because P(x) is true for all real numbers, the
quantification is true. 8
 A statement  xP(x) is false, if and only if P(x) is not

always true where x is in the domain. One way to show
that is to find a counterexample to the statement  xP(x).
 Example: Let Q(x) be the statement “x < 2”. What is the
truth value of the quantification  xQ(x), where the domain
consists of all real numbers?
Solution: Q(x) is not true for every real numbers, e.g. Q(3) is
false. x = 3 is a counterexample for the statement xQ(x).
Thus the quantification is false.
 xP(x) is the same as the conjunction

P(x1) Λ P(x2) Λ …. Λ P(xn) 9
 Example: What does the statement  xN(x) mean if

N(x) is “Computer x is connected to the network”
and the domain consists of all computers on
campus?
Solution: “Every computer on campus is connected to the
network.”
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DEFINITION 2
The existential quantification of P(x) is the statement
“There exists an element x in the domain such that P(x).”
We use the notation xP(x) for the existential quantification of P(x). Here
 is called the Existential Quantifier.
• The existential quantification xP(x) is read as
“There is an x such that P(x),” or
“There is at least one x such that P(x),” or
“For some x, P(x).”
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 Example: Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 3”. What is
the truth value of the quantification xP(x), where the
domain consists of all real numbers?
Solution: “x > 3” is sometimes true – for instance when
x = 4. The existential quantification is true.
  xP(x) is false if and only if P(x) is false for every element
of the domain.
 Example: Let Q(x) denote the statement “x = x + 1”. What
is the true value of the quantification  xQ(x), where the
domain consists for all real numbers?
Solution: Q(x) is false for every real number. The existential
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 If the domain is empty,  xQ(x) is false because there can
be no element in the domain for which Q(x) is true.
 The existential quantification  xP(x) is the same as the
disjunction P(x1) V P(x2) V … VP(xn)
Quantifiers
Statement When True? When False?
xP(x) xP(x) is true for every x. There is an x for which xP(x)

is false.
xP(x) There is an x for which P(x) is P(x) is false for every x.
true.
 13
 Uniqueness quantifier  ! or  1
 !xP(x) or 1P(x) states “There exists a unique x such that P(x) is
true.”
 Quantifiers with restricted domains
 Example: What do the following statements mean? The domain in
each case consists of real numbers.
 x
< 0 (x2 > 0): For every real number x with x < 0, x 2 > 0. “The square of a

negative real number is positive.” It’s the same as x(x < 0 → x 2 > 0)
  y ≠ 0 (y3 ≠ 0 ): For every real number y with y ≠ 0, y 3 ≠ 0. “The cube of every non-
zero real number is non-zero.” It’s the same as  y(y ≠ 0 → y 3 ≠ 0 ).
 z > 0 (z2 = 2): There exists a real number z with z > 0, such that z 2 = 2. “There is a
positive square root of 2.” It’s the same as  z(z > 0 Λ z2 = 2):
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 Precedence of Quantifiers
  and  have higher precedence than all logical operators.
 E.g.  xP(x) V Q(x) is the same as ( xP(x)) V Q(x)
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Translating from English into Logical Expressions
 Example: Express the statement “Every student in this
class has studied calculus” using predicates and
quantifiers.
Solution:
If the domain consists of students in the class –
xC(x)
where C(x) is the statement “x has studied calculus.
If the domain consists of all people –
x(S(x) → C(x)
where S(x) represents that person x is in this class.
If we are interested in the backgrounds of people in subjects
besides calculus, we can use the two-variable quantifier Q(x,y) for
the statement “student x has studies subject y.” Then we would
replace C(x) by Q(x, calculus) to obtain  xQ(x, calculus) or 16
x(S(x) → Q(x, calculus))

 Example: Consider these statements. The first two are
called premises and the third is called the conclusion. The
entire set is called an argument.
“All lions are fierce.”
“Some lions do not drink coffee.”
“Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.”
Solution: Let P(x) be “x is a lion.”

Q(x) be “x is fierce.”
R(x) be “x drinks coffee.”
 x(P(x) → Q(x))
 x(P(x) Λ ¬R(x))
 x(Q(x) Λ ¬R(x))
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Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications

Chapter 1: The Foundations:

Lingma Acheson (linglu@iupui.edu)

 A statement involving n variables x1, x2, …,

Example: Let P(x) be the statement “x + 1 > x.” What is the

 A statement  xP(x) is false, if and only if P(x) is not

 xP(x) is the same as the conjunction

 Example: What does the statement  xN(x) mean if

xP(x) xP(x) is true for every x. There is an x for which xP(x)

x(S(x) → Q(x, calculus))

Solution: Let P(x) be “x is a lion.”

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