SOCIOLOGY &

BUILDING

ECONOMICS
MODULE 2 – PART 3
WHAT ARE SLUMS?
A slum, as defined by the United Nations agency UN-HABITAT, is a run-down area of a city characterised by
substandard housing and squalor and lacking in tenure security.

According to UN Expert Group, slum has been defined as an area that combines various features, including inadequate
access to safe water, inadequate access to sanitation and other infrastructure, poor structural quality of housing;
overcrowding and insecure residential status.

The word “slum” is often used to describe informal settlements within cities that have inadequate housing and squalid,
miserable living conditions. They are often overcrowded, with many people crammed into very small living spaces.

These settlements lack basic municipal services such as water, sanitation, waste collection, storm drainage, street
lighting, paved sidewalks and roads for emergency access. Most also do not have easy access to schools, hospitals or
public places for the community to gather. Many slums have been un-serviced and un-recognised for long periods, over
20 years in some cities.

Like all informal settlements, housing in slums is built on land that the occupant does not have a legal claim to and
without any urban planning or adherence to zoning regulations. In addition, slums are often areas where many social
indicators are on a downward slide; for example, crime and unemployment are on the rise. All slums are not the same, and
some provide better living conditions than others. Likewise, slum dwellers are not a homogeneous population, but a
diverse group of people with different interests, means and backgrounds. Slums are also a significant economic force.
In many cities, as much as 60 percent of employment is in the informal sector of the urban population.
WHAT ARE SLUMS?

UN-HABITAT defines a slum household as a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area who lack
one or more of the following:

 Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions.
 Sufficient living space, which means not more than three people sharing the same room.
 Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price.
 Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet shared by a reasonable number of people.
 Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions.

In India, notification, or legal designation, as a slum settlement is central to the recognition of slums by the
government and over time is intended to afford residents rights to the provision of potable water and
sanitation. But many communities exhibiting distinctly slum-like characteristics are never notified
(Subbaraman et al., 2012); Delhi, for example, has notified no new slums since 1994 (Bhan, 2013). The UN
definition incorporates legality, however, and would presumably identify all deprived areas, and not just those
recognized as slums by the government, likely leading to disagreement over the distribution and absolute
number of slum residents in India.
WHAT ARE THE THE SITUATION OF SLUMS:
CHARACTERISTICS OF SLUMS?
 Unhygienic conditions.
• High rate of poverty;  Lack of medical facilities.
• High incidence of unemployment;  Lack of sanitation.
• Huge extent of urban decay;  Congested.
• Breeding grounds for social problems like  No access to drinking water and electricity.
crime, drug addiction, alcoholism etc.;  Most of the inhabitants of the slums can’t be
• High rates of mental illness and suicide etc.; beneficiaries to Govt schemes.
• Low level of economic status of its residents;  Only a few slums are recognized by Govt.
• Inadequate infrastructural facilities;  Conditions in unrecognized slums are even
• Acute problem of malnutrition worse.
• Lack of drinking water;  No drainage system. In most slums,
• Lack of basic healthcare; wastewater flow in between houses.
• Unsanitary and unary environment;  The little medical facilities available in slums
• Low standard of living or poor quality of life. is provided by NGOs.
WHAT ARE THE CAUSES OF SLUMS?

 Increasing rural to urban migration.

 Urban areas are not being improved enough to accommodate the new inhabitants.
 Poor planning of cities.
 Poverty and lack of job opportunities in rural areas are the push factors of migration.
 The high cost of living in urban areas.
 Natural disasters.
 Increasing population.
 Urbanization – Pull factor of rural migration.
 Social exclusion.
 Informal economy.
 Some politicians use slum inhabitants as their vote banks. Though they give fake promises of improving the living
conditions, they encourage slums.
 Social conflicts – civil wars.
EFFECTS ON THE PEOPLE LIVING IN SLUMS:

 The reduced life expectancy of slum inhabitants.

 Health problems due to drinking contaminated water.
 Environment pollution.
 The low standard of living.
 Degraded health conditions.
 Those living in slums get victimized easily by alcohol and drugs.
 Slums inhabitants will become the worst victims of natural disasters.
 Slums breed violence, crime, diseases, epidemics and psychological illnesses.
 Preterm births.
 Malnutrition in children.
 Child labour.
 No safety for women living in slums due to high no. of drunkards.
The vulnerability of a household to be poor may be of the following types. One or multiple type of
vulnerability may be found to occur in any poor household.

Housing Vulnerability: Lack of tenure, poor quality shelter without ownership rights, no access to individual
water connection/toilets, unhealthy and insanitary living conditions. The fact that household size affects the poverty
status of a household is well known. Larger households tend to have a higher probability of being poor.

Economic Vulnerability: Irregular/casual employment, low paid work, lack of access to credit on reasonable
terms, lack of access to formal safety net programmes, low ownership of productive assets, poor net worth, legal
constraints to self-employment.

Social Vulnerability: Low education, lack of skills, low social capital/caste status, inadequate access to food
security programmes, lack of access to health services, exclusion from local institutions.

Personal Vulnerability: Proneness to violence or intimidation, especially women, children, the elderly, disabled
and destitute, belonging to low castes and minority groups, lack of information, lack of access to justice.
WHAT ARE THE SOLUTIONS FOR SLUM DEVELOPMENT:
FAILED SOLUTIONS:

 Slum removal – It made slum inhabitants homeless. WHAT INDIA IS DOING:

 Slum relocation – It moved poor people further away
from their workplaces. Govt of India launched ‘National Urban Health Mission‘ to
improve health care facilities for urban poor.
SUCCESSFUL STRATEGIES: India implemented ‘slum upgrading‘ in a few recognized
slums.
 Slum upgrading. It improved slum’s living conditions. In 2015, the Indian Govt allocated budget to replace crowded
But it does not address poverty and low wages of the slums with 2 crore homes.
informal economy.
 Organized urbanization – Planning & Modifying urban CONCLUSION:
areas to accommodate newcomers.
 Legitimizing slums instead of driving them out of their Besides improving the living conditions in slums, the causes
homes. of slums creation should be addressed. Distributive
 Improving job opportunities in rural as well as urban development will serve the purpose and thereby everyone
areas. can have a dignified and healthy life.
 Planning rural development along with urban
development.
 Economic development.
 Better transport facilities.
 Affordable housing in urban areas.
URBAN DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES INITIATED SINCE INDEPENDENCE
Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT)
The programme was launched in 1979-80 basically for developing small and medium towns partly by providing basic
services to poor and also by improving their economic conditions so that the growth of metro cities could be arrested.
Initially, the scope of the programme was restricted to towns with populations below one hundred thousand as per the
1971 Census. It had been decided in the Eighth Plan to include cities having population of five hundred thousand as per
the Census of 1991.

Low Cost Sanitation Programme (LCS)

The goal of providing sanitation facilities to eighty per cent of urban population was fixed in the early eighties with the
announcement of the UN Decadal Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Accordingly, a centrally sponsored
scheme was launched in 1980 81, with the objective of eliminating manual scavenging through conversion of dry latrines.
It covered all the households, which have dry latrines and those having no latrines including slum and squatter settlements.
Under this scheme, loan and Central subsidy were both channeled through HUDCO.

Shelter and Sanitation for Pavement Dwellers (SSPD)

This programme was launched in large urban areas including metropolitan cities, having sizable shelter-less population.
The Tenth Plan has pointed out that the provision of subsidy under the scheme has to be adequate to make it feasible for
the NGOs to take up shelter construction. The grants per bed should also be revised to achieve the objective of providing a
sufficient number of night-shelters for the homeless women and children. The Pay and Use component of this scheme is
being merged with the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan of VAMBAY. Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP) This
is another centrally sponsored scheme launched during the Eighth Plan for providing water to the towns having less than
20,000 population as per the Census of 1991, operationally under the State PHED to be funded by the Central
Government, State Government and concerned ULBs on 50:45:5 ratio. The Centre met the entire cost in Union Territories.
National Slum Development Programme (NSDP)
The NSDP initiated in 1996 as a scheme of Special Central Assistance for slum improvement, has been providing
additional central assistance to state governments to provide water supply and sanitation among other facilities to the
slums.

VAMBAY (Valmiki-Ambedkar Awas Yojona)

This scheme has been launched in 2001-02 to provide shelter or upgrade the existing shelter of the people living below
poverty line in urban slums implemented in partnership with state governments who will set up the implementation
machinery, arrange for land where required and for the credit component for housing. The state funds under the scheme
will be in proportion to their slum population.

Nehru Rozgar Yojana (NRY)

In order to alleviate the conditions of urban poor, a Centrally Sponsored programme - Nehru Rozgar Yojana - was
launched at the end of the Seventh Five Year Plan (October 1989) with the objective of providing of employment to the
urban unemployed and underemployed poor. The Central Government indicated its overall contribution while the essential
task of identifying, earmarking and coordinating the relevant sectoral inputs was undertaken by the State Governments.
The NRY consisted of three schemes namely (i) the Scheme of Urban Micro Enterprises (SUME); (ii) the Scheme of
Urban Wage Employment (SUWE); and (iii) the Scheme of Housing and Shelter Upgradation (SHASU). During the
Eighth Plan, 92% of the available funds were utilised and but for the shortfall in the number of dwelling units upgraded/in
progress under SHASU, the targets have been achieved under all the other schemes.
Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP)
The UBSP Programme was implemented as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme during the Eighth Five Year Plan with the
specific objectives of effective achievement of the social sector goals; community organization, mobilization and
empowerment; and convergence through sustainable support system. The expenditure on the Programme was being shared
on a 60:40 basis between the Central and the State Governments and UTs (with legislatures). Further, the per capita
expenditure on any slum pocket is Rs.75/- in the first year and Rs.50/- from the second year onwards after the basic
infrastructure is developed. Prime Minister’s Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (PMIUPEP)
Recognizing the seriousness and complexity of urban poverty problems, especially in the small towns, the PMI UPEP was
launched in November, 1995 applicable to all Class II urban agglomerations with a population ranging between 50,000
and one lakh subject to the condition that elections to local bodies have been held.

The Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rozgar Yojana (SJSRY)

The Nehru Rojgar Yojna (NRY) and Prime Minister’s Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (PMI UPEP) were
two important direct poverty alleviation programmes in urban areas. Although their thrust was on employment and income
generation for urban poor, these had components for provision of basic services as well. PMI UPEP was launched in the
year 1995 96 with the objectives of employment generation, shelter upgradation, social development and community
empowerment. It may, however, be noted that during 1997, the three programmes of UBSP, NRY and PMIUPEP have been
merged into a single employment generation programme called Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rojgar Yojona (SJSRY).
The SJSRY is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme applicable to all the urban areas with expenditure to be shared in ratio 75:25
between the Centre and States/UTs. The programme has two sub-schemes namely, (a) Urban Self Employment Programme
and (b) Urban Wage Employment Programme. The self-employment and wage employment components of the NRY and
PMIUPEP have been reorganised under this single programme. The shelter upgradation components of both NRY and
PMIUPEP have been merged with the National Slum Development Programme.
The SJSRY seeks to provide gainful employment to the urban unemployed or underemployed poor by encouraging the
setting up of self-employment ventures or provision of wage employment. This programme is based on the creation of
suitable community structures on the UBSP pattern and delivery of inputs under this programme was devised through
urban local bodies and similar community institutional structures and rests on the foundation of community empowerment.
Community organisations like Neighbourhood Groups (NHGs), Neighbourhood Committees (NHCs) and Community
Development Societies (CDSs) have been set up in the target areas based on the UBSP pattern. The CDSs is the focal
point for purposes of identification of beneficiaries, preparation of applications, monitoring of recovery and generally
providing whatever other support is necessary to the programme. The CDSs identifies viable projects suitable for that
particular area.

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM)

Urban Renewal, with a focus on inclusive development of urban centers, is one of the thrust areas in the National
Common Minimum Programme of the Government and accordingly Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JNNURM) was launched on 3rd December 2005 with an investment of Rs.50,000.00 crores in the Mission period of
seven years beginning 2005-06. The Mission aims to encourage reforms and fast-track infrastructure development with a
focus on efficiency in urban infrastructure and services delivery mechanism, community participation, accountability of
ULBs towards citizens. The primary objective of the JNNURM is to create economically productive, efficient, equitable
and responsive cities. To achieve this objective, the Mission focuses on integrated development of infrastructure services;
securing linkages between asset creation and maintenance for long-run project sustainability; accelerating the flow of
investment into urban infrastructure services; planned urban development; renewal of inner- city areas and universalisation
of urban services to ensure balanced urban development.
The Mission has also succeeded in getting the state and city governments to commit themselves to structural reforms
which the Central government had failed to achieve despite adopting several measures and incentive schemes proposed
since early nineties through other programmes and legislations (Kundu, et.al 2007). In fact, a set of 23 mandatory reforms
have to be introduced by the respective state governments and cities as per the commitments made by them in the
Memorandum of Agreement (MoA) at the beginning of the mission period. The JNNURM is thus a mission of macro
economic growth wherein ground conditions have been created through reform measures and infrastructural investment in
65 select cities for attracting domestic and foreign investment.

The JNNURM has two sub-missions for the mission cities, viz, (1) Urban Infrastructure and Governance (UIG) and (2)
Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP).

The JNNURM is expected to cater to the non-mission towns and cities under the two components, namely, the (1) Urban
Infrastructure and Governance (UIG) of UIDSSMT and Integrated Housing and Slum Development Programme (IHSDP).
The programme is expected to cover all other Census towns under Urban Infrastructure Development Scheme for Small
and Medium Towns (UIDSSMT) . The existing programme of IDSMT, AUWSP has been subsumed under UIDSSMT.
Likewise, the existing VAMBAY and the discontinued NSDP have been subsumed in the IHSDP.