Flight Testing Module 1

FLIGHT TESTING- INTRODUCTION
&
FLIGHT TEST INSTRUMENTATION
15 AE 831
MODULE-1
D Srinivasan
2019 MVJCE Aero Dept 15AE831 MODULE 1 1

Module -1
• Introduction: Sequence, Planning and governing
regulations of flight testing. Aircraft weight and centre of
gravity, flight testing tolerances. Method of reducing data
uncertainty in flight test data -sources and magnitudes of
error, avoiding and minimizing errors.
• Flight test instrumentation: Planning flight test
instrumentation, Measurement of flight parameters. On-
board and ground based data acquisition system. Radio
telemetry.
6 Hours L1, L2 (8-9 classes)

• Flight testing piloted and unmanned aerospace vehicles is an
interdisciplinary process fundamental to the development of new
systems and to advancement of aeronautical knowledge.
• Engineers from all domains are to successfully put a new system
through a thorough and compete flight test programme.
• Flight testing involves testing of complete air vehicle and
therefore involves aeronautical, mechanical, electrical,
electronics, networks, computer science disciplines in addition to
human interface with the vehicle. Therefore FT is a complex
process and is considered a separate domain in aviation.

Why Flight Test?
There are three fundamental reasons for flight
testing of piloted aircraft, these are :
• To determine the actual aircraft characteristics
of the machine (as compared to the computed
and predicted characteristics)
• To provide developmental information
• To obtain research information

Types of Flight Testing
Flight testing
Experimental Flight Production Flight

Testing Testing
Developmental Test
and Evaluation
Engineering Flight
Test (Certification /
Demonstration)
Operational Test and

Evaluation

The Experimental Flight Testing (EFT) includes
– the first flight of new prototype aircraft
– the determination or expansion of its flight
envelope.
– testing of a new aircraft model or of an existing
aircraft design that has been significantly
modified.
EFT is for defining the prototype aircraft’s unknown
– performance
– flying qualities
– system operation or other characteristics

The Engineering Flight Testing is performed within
the aircraft’s flight envelope. Here the flight and
system characteristics are already established /
known.
This type is for establishing functionality, reliability
testing of system components. Engineering FT also
includes testing and demonstration required for
certification of the aircraft under FAR / EASA etc.

Systems Flight Testing
• Conducted to assess systems on board the ac that
have been newly installed, updated or modified.
It is assumed that the flight characteristics are
not affected by the new / changed system (need
not be the case all the time). (Give examples on
antenna, weapons, battery, hydraulic fluid, tyre
manufacturer, Brake pads)

Maintenance Flight Testing or Functional Check
Flights
• Conducted to after maintenance or new
installation has been carried out on the ac. The
flight serve to assess/verify performance and
flying qualities of the aircraft and correct
operations of its systems.

The Production Flight Testing (PFT) is conducted
to ensure that each production aircraft conforms
to the approved type data set, and that all its
systems are functioning correctly.
– PFT is essentially the final stage in the
production process
– Its satisfactory completion is a prerequisite to
each aircraft being issued with a Certificate of
Airworthiness (CoA) and being released to the
customer.

• Production flight testing is typically done in two phases:
initial rigging and engine condition checks; and flights to
gather specific information to determine compliance
with type specifications. Some manufacturers may
choose to include engine ground run checks and
adjustments in the FTS. This is generally because the
same people responsible for engine set up are also
involved with performance of the PFT.
• Phase One tests are typically conducted at a light weight
and mid CG condition, and the schedule should specify
these parameters. The main aims of Phase One are to
determine that control rigging is correct, the engine is
functioning acceptably and the aircraft is generally safe
to fly.
• For the engine tests, the purpose is to confirm
the required power is available, and there are no
obvious problems with engine functioning. In
more complicated aircraft tests of powered
systems (e.g. undercarriage retraction and
extension, pressurisation) might be included in
the Phase One tests.
• The objectives of the Phase Two tests are to fine

tune the control systems and determine
compliance with flight handling, performance,
and system specifications.

• These flights are typically done at the extreme CG
conditions and maximum weight. This allows tests
of trim systems, flight handling and performance at
conditions where there is established certification
data upon which to base acceptability criteria.
• In most aircraft it will be necessary to conduct
flights at both ends of the CG envelope to cater for
specific performance and handling criteria. Cases
where this may not be required would be limited
to aircraft in which the allowable CG range is
particularly narrow; for example, single place
aeroplanes, or those of very light weight with a
two-place, side by side seating configuration.
• Integrated testing is not a separate category,
but a concept for test management.
Integrated testing is the collaborative planning
and collaborative execution of test phases and
events to provide shared data in support of
independent analysis, evaluation and
reporting by all stakeholders.

Joint Test and Evaluation (JT&E) (IN USA)
• An OSD (Office of Secretary of Defense) sponsored T&E
program conducted among more than one military Service
to provide T&E information on combat operations issues
and concepts. JT&E does not support system acquisition.
Live Fire Test and Evaluation (LFT&E) (IN USA)
• The firing of actual weapons (or surrogates if actual
weapons are not available) at components, subsystems,
sub-assemblies, and/or full-up, system -level targets or
systems to examine personnel casualties, system
vulnerabilities, or system lethality; and the evaluation of
the results of such testing. LFT&E is a statutory
requirement for certain systems as described in 10 U.S.C.
§2366

Why Performance Flight Testing?
• Aircraft performance generally can be defined as
the flight manoeuvres an aircraft must execute for
successful mission accomplishment. Expected
performance parameters must be an integral part
of the aircraft design process.
• Given the user’s performance expectations, the
designer makes decisions regarding wing loading,
power plant selection, aerofoil selection, planform
configuration, and other design considerations.
• All of these help tailor the design to give the
aircraft the desired performance characteristics.
Why Flying Qualities Flight Testing?
• The prime reason for conducting flying qualities
investigations, is to determine if the pilot-airplane
combination can safely and precisely perform the
various tasks of the total mission of the airplane.
This determination can generally be made by the
pure qualitative approach to stability and control
testing. However, this is only part of the complete
test program.
• A balance between qualitative and quantitative
testing must be achieved in any stability and
control test and evaluation program.
• Before commencing FQ FT, the individual tasks associated
with the accomplishment of a total mission must be
determined.
• The individual tasks may be further subdivided. Normally
a pilot is expected to perform the following tasks for any
mission:
(Mission Breakdown)
– Pre-flight ground operations.
– Take-off and climb.
– Navigation (to a predetermined point).
– Strategic or tactical manoeuvring (as applicable).
– Navigation to a landing point.
– Approach and landing.
– Post flight ground or deck operation.

• Quantitative testing must be performed in order
to:
– Substantiate, if possible, the pilot's qualitative opinion.
– Document those characteristics of the airplane which
particularly enhance or derogate some flying quality.
– Provide data for comparing airplane characteristics and
for formulating future design changes.
– Provide base data for determination of future
expansion of flight and CG envelope or future
expansion of total mission.
– Determine conformance or non-conformance with
appropriate test specifications.

Sequence of Flight Tests
It is usual to have multiple phases in the test
sequence. Specific prototype ac are earmarked for
specific phases of tests. They all need not be to the
same standard of preparation (SOP)
– Initial development phase to establish basic
envelope
– Envelope expansion, safety of ac, systems testing
– Initial certification phase
– Final certification phase
– Entry into service (EIS)
– Finally support following EIS

Flight Test Plan

• Flight Test Plans are written for all aspects of airplane
testing such as airframe structural tests, flying qualities
and performance tests, avionics tests, simulator
validation, systems software tests, and engine tests.
• It is a written document of the duties and
responsibilities of those concerned with planning and
conducting assigned projects.
• Thorough and timely reviews of the test plan can aid in
ensuring that the test is conducted safely.
• All members of the test team should be familiar with
the test plan prior to conducting test flights.
• Any Flight Test Plan covers three essential ingredients
i.e. Safety, Costs and Schedule

OBJECTIVES OF THE TEST PLAN
• The test plan gives project personnel a systematic approach
to the effective, efficient, and safe conduct of the test
program. The test plan defines the purpose of the test, the
scope of the test, the test methods used, the risks involved
with the test, and the risk reduction techniques to be used.
• Flight Test Plan it is also a document in which management
can obtain a clear and concise description of the objectives
of the test and the risks involved in obtaining these
objectives.
• The test plan also provides a means by which management
can ensure that adequate planning and preparation have
been done, to verify that the test is within the charter or
capabilities of the organization, and to ensure that the
correct personnel are being used.
Flight Test Plan
• Flight test planning consists of the organization and
allocation of resources toward the development of a
flight test approach that will validate each flight test
objective. A significant part of flight test planning is
related to developing good test methodology, which
is how the test will be conducted to achieve each
objective. This requires thorough coordination and
discussion with all required technical disciplines
associated with the test in an effort to promote test
efficiency and success. The elected methodology is
documented in a flight test plan.

A flight test plan is a documented systematic approach to execute
the mission and includes, at a minimum the following topics:
– purpose and scope of the test;
– number of flights needed to accomplish each objective;
– duration of each flight;
– flight path;
– required flight manoeuvres and test point acceptance criteria;
– test configurations;
– test conditions;
– risk reduction techniques;
– data collection, including measurements, data rate, and
format type;
– data-gathering and reduction methods to evaluate test results
during and/or post-flight.

FLIGHT TEST PROCESS

FLIGHT TEST REGULATIONS

SFTE Handbook edition 2007

SFTE Handbook edition 2007

Weighing and Ballasting of Test Aircraft
• An aircraft is always weighed after levelling (i.e. to
spirit level xy plane parallel to earth’s surface).
• Ballasting is the process of adding weights in an
aircraft in the form of sand bags / lead plates / boxes
with standard weights added and secured in the
aircraft to achieve a desired position in the MAC.
• Liquid ballast in the form of water in different tanks is
also

Flight Testing Tolerances – FAR 23
The purpose of the tolerances specified in § 23.21(b) is to allow for
variations in flight test values from which data are acceptable for
reduction to the value desired. They are not intended for routine test
scheduling at the lower weights, or to allow for compliance to be
shown at less than the critical condition; nor are they to be
considered as allowable inaccuracy of measurement (such as in an
airspeed calibration).
Where variation in the parameter on which a tolerance is allowed
will have an effect on the results of the test, the result should be
corrected to the most critical value of that parameter within the
operating envelope being approved. If such a correction is
impossible or impractical, the average test conditions should assure
that the measured characteristics represent the actual critical value

Flight Testing Tolerances
Additional acceptable tolerances.
Additional acceptable tolerances appear in table 1 below:
Item Tolerance
Airspeed 3 knots or ±3 percent (%), whichever is greater
Power ±5 percent
Wind (takeoff and, As low as possible, but not to exceed
landing tests, not for approximately 12 percent VS1 or 10 knots,
crosswind component whichever is lower, along the runway measured
testing) at a height of 6 feet above the runway surface. At
higher wind velocities, the data may be unreliable
due to wind variations and unsmooth flight
conditions.

Flight Testing Tolerances
Sec. 23.21 - Proof of compliance.
(a) Each requirement of this subpart must be met at each appropriate
combination of weight and center of gravity within the range of loading
conditions for which certification is requested.
This must be shown--
(1) By tests upon an airplane of the type for which certification is
requested, or by
calculations based on, and equal in accuracy to, the results of testing; and
(2) By systematic investigation of each probable combination of weight and
center of gravity, if compliance cannot be reasonably inferred from
combinations investigated.
(b) The following general tolerances are allowed during flight testing.
However, greater tolerances may be allowed in particular tests:
Item Tolerance
Weight +5%, -10%
Critical items affected by weight +5%, -1%
C.G. ±7% total travel
Flight Testing of Fixed Wing Aircraft R Kimberlin

Section 25.21(d) - Proof of Compliance (Flight Test Tolerances).
(a) To allow for variations from precise test values, acceptable tolerances
during flight testing must be maintained. The purpose of these tolerances
is to allow for small variations in flight test values of certain variables from
the targeted value. They are not intended for compliance tests to be
planned for other than the critical condition, nor are they to be considered
as an allowable measurement error.
(b) Where variation in the parameter for which a tolerance is allowed will
have an effect on the results of the test, the results should be corrected to
the most critical value of that parameter within the approved operating
envelope. If such a correction is impossible or impractical, the average test
conditions should assure that the measured characteristics represent the
actual critical value of that parameter within the approved operating
envelope. If such a correction is impossible or impractical, the average test
conditions should assure that the measured characteristics represent the
actual critical value.
Section 25.21(d) - Proof of Compliance (Flight Test Tolerances).
Many flight tests need to be conducted at or very near the maximum
operating weight for the airplane configuration, particularly those
tests used to establish airplane flight manual (AFM) performance
information. As noted in paragraph (a) above, the purpose of the
test tolerances is to allow for variations in flight test values, not to
routinely schedule tests at less than critical weight conditions or to
allow for compliance to be shown at less than the critical weight
condition. In addition, the tolerances can be used to help determine
when to interrupt a series of test conditions in order to refuel the
airplane if necessary to remain within the acceptable weight
tolerance.
NOTE: A -5 percent tolerance limit means that the weight for the
particular test may be up to 5 percent less than the test target value.
A +5 percent tolerance limit means that the weight for the particular
test
2019
may be up to 5 percent higher than the test target value.
MVJCE Aero Dept 15AE831 MODULE 1 42
Flight Test Conditions Weight Weight Tolerance
Tolerance Limits Limit
±5% ±10%
Stall Speeds X
Stall Characteristics X
All Other Flight X
Characteristics
Climb Performance X
Takeoff Flight Paths X
Landing Braking Distance X
Landing Air Distance X
Takeoff Distance & Speed X
Accelerate-Stop Distance X
Maximum Energy RTOs X
Minimum Unstick Speed X
Minimum Control Speed X
Corrections to Standard Value Parameter
Cases in which corrections to a standard value of the parameter are
normally allowed appear in table below:
Power /
Test Weight Density Thrust Airspeed Other
Takeoff Wind, runway
Performance X X X X
gradient
Landing Wind, runway
Performance X X — X
gradient
Stall Speed X — — —
Climb X X X X Acceleration
Performance
Glide X X - X
Performance
VMC — X X —

METHODS OF REDUCING UNCERTAINTY
IN DATA

• All experimental methods are conducted in real
environment and are therefore susceptible to
(randomness) changes in weather, conditions etc.,
however the data presented in manuals refer to
standard atmosphere.
• All performance manuals are given for a specific
weights, however, it is impossible to conduct the
actual experiment at the prescribed weight every
time.
• All measurements have errors which introduces
uncertainty in the data. To remove the errors, one
must understand the sources of these errors,
implement methods to eliminate / minimise the
errors.
• In flight testing the aircraft manuals are compiled after
minimising the errors in the data collected and reducing the
data to standard conditions
• Random errors come from atmosphere, pilot techniques,
errors in taking readings.
• Errors come from poor planning, poor test technique,
errors in assumptions etc.
• One can repeat tests in order to generate repeatability,
however high costs involved limits the number of
samples collected for each test point.
• Therefore in Flight testing we need to minimise
uncertainty and present data that recognises remaining
uncertainty.
Sources of Errors
1. Instrument Error
2. Airspeed and Altitude Position Error
3. Reading or Discrimination Error
4. Uncertainty due to Atmospheric Conditions
5. Error due to Piloting Technique
6. Error due to Inaccurate Thrust or Power
Determination
7. Error due to Control System Friction or
Hysteresis


Avoiding or Minimising Errors
1. Instrument Calibrations
2. Sample Size
3. Methods of avoiding reading errors
4. Minimising atmospheric errors
5. Minimising errors due to pilot technique
6. Minimising error due to inaccurate
measurement of thrust and power
7. Minimising friction and hysteresis errors

Error Analysis
1. Test of Consistency
2. Test against Theory
3. Correlation


FLIGHT TEST INSTRUMENTATION

PHASES IN A MEASURING OPERATION
• Phase I: Obtaining a rough reading

o The first step in a measuring operation is to obtain a numerical value.
o This may be done, for example, by writing down the position of a pointer
relative to a scale on a dial, by measuring the position of a trace on a
continuous-trace recording, or by storing a digital number in a computer
memory.
o The number so obtained often is not expressed in units of the measurand.
o For instance, the output of a pressure transducer can be read in Volts from
a voltmeter, in digital figures from a digital indicator, or in millimeters from
a continuous-trace recording.

• Phase II: Conversion of the rough reading into
an indicated value
o In this phase the rough reading is converted into a
number expressed in units of the measurand.
o The relation between the rough reading and the
indicated value is given by the static calibration.
o For pointer instruments where the scale is graduated
in units of the measurand, phases 1 and 2 coincide.

• Phase III: Correction of the indicated value to the
measured value
o These corrections take into account previously measured
or calculated imperfections of the measuring chain.
o The corrections may be derived from more precise static
calibration data (for instance corrections relative to the
scale of a pointer instrument), from the dynamic
characteristics of the measuring chain, from environmental
effects etc. The sign of such corrections is such that
Indicated value + Correction = Measured Value

• Phase IV: Calculation of the most probable value
o If more than one measured value of the some measurand is
available, it will often be possible to use statistical methods to
obtain a more accurate result.
o Two cases are considered here:
-- a number of measurements have been made under
(essentially) the same conditions. Then the mean of these
measured values will be the most probable value
-- time history is available of a process in which the measurand
changed relatively slowly

• Phase V: Meditation about the true value
o When analyzing the results of a measurement, the engineer
must think about the significance of the most probable value.
o There may be systematic errors which have not been
corrected.
o Many similar effects may cause differences between the most
probable value of the measured quantity and the true value of
the quantity in which one is interested.
o Although these points should all have been considered during
the design of the measuring chain (on the basis of predicted
inputs), it is essential that they are reconsidered when
interpreting the results of the measurement.
o Then the engineer must clearly remember the simplifying
assumptions accepted in the design phase and reconsider
2019 them in the light ofMVJCE
theAeromeasuring results
Dept 15AE831 MODULE 1 obtained. 59
• The purpose of a flight test instrumentation
system is to acquire data about the operation
of the test vehicle and provide the data to the
data processing group.
• The FT instrumentation specification describes
the measurands that the FTE requires to
successfully evaluate and report on the
performance or specification compliance of
the vehicle and the solution to those
requirements as installed in the test vehicle.

The Ideal Instrumentation System
In an ideal instrumentation system, there
exists a measurand, a transducer, and an
airborne data terminal device. None of these
ideal system components introduces a time
delay.
The measurand is defined as the physical
quantity that is to be measured; for example,
strain, pressure, temperature. The ideal
measured contains no information beyond that
required for the application
Instrumentation Systems can be classified in two areas:
Airborne Instrumentation System and Ground based
Instrumentation system.
Airborne Systems
• The purpose of an airborne instrumentation system is
to acquire data about the operation or environment of
a test object and store and/or transmit that data for
future use.
• The basic components of the system are:
– A transducer that senses the phenomenon of interest
– A signal conditioner that converts the transducer output
into a standardized signal, usually electrical (several
successive conditioners may be needed)

The basic components of the system are:
– A transducer that senses the phenomenon of interest
– A signal conditioner that converts the transducer
output into a standardized signal, usually electrical
(several successive conditioners may be needed)
– A multiplexer to allow multiple signals to share time
or space
– An Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) in the case of a
digital system
– A Modulator that converts the standardized signal so
that it can be recorded
– A Recorder that stores data for future retrieval.

Transducers
Transducers can be purchased (COTS) or custom designed
and built to measure almost any physical phenomenon, to
almost any range, and to almost any accuracy.
Cost and availability separate the low end items from the
high end ones. Various AGARDograph Flight Test
Instrumentation Series Volumes describe detailed use of
many transducers.
Most transducer manufacturers will provide technical
documents describing their devices.
Sources for finding manufacturers include (in the US)
Vendor Catalogue Service, Electronic Engineers Master
(EEM) Catalogue and Thomas Register.

Signal Conditioning
• Equipment for signal conditioning can also be
purchased or custom designed. Fewer types are
normally required than transducer types as widely
different transducer inputs have identical outputs.
• One function of signal conditioning the FTE must
know about and sometimes specify is filtering.
• Description of detailed signal conditioning design
can be found in AGARDograph 160 Volumes 1 and
19.
• NASA publication 1159 also contains much
information on analog conditioning.
Modulators
• The modulators currently in use include
Frequency Modulation (FM) systems and Pulse
Code Modulation (PCM) Systems.
• The Range Commanders Council (RCC) has
prepared standards for both these approaches.
Their Inter-Range Instrumentation Group (IRIG)
standards are used throughout the world.
• Due to the large investment for all the possible
combinations, particularly in FM, not all data
processing facilities have all the necessary
equipment..
Multiplexing
• In the multiplexing portion of PCM encoding,
measurands are normally sampled
sequentially.
• The designer must know if the FTE needs
simultaneous samples of specific measurands.
• While FM systems appear to be continuous,
most data processing systems eventually
sample the data just as a PCM system does.

Aircraft Avionics Data Buses
• Besides the measurands acquired by the previously described classical
flight test transducer/signal conditioner / multiplexor / modulator
chains, many measurands are now available on aircraft avionics buses.
• In modern flight test programs of some significance, the number of
digital data bus measurands is usually much bigger than the number
of classical flight test measurands.
• The data on these buses is already in a digital format. The desired data
are extracted from the data buses and are often multiplexed into the
data streams with the other PCM data.
• As the digital words on these avionics buses are much longer than the
10-, 11-, or 12-bit words of the classical PCM words, special
precautions must be taken to enable later decoding.
• The data bus systems used in the civil aviation community are
described in ARINC-429 and ARINC-629, while the military data bus
standard is described in MIL-STD-1553

Recorders
• Most recorders in use are either Solid State
Recorders or Magnetic Tape.
• Size of the recorders and complexity tend to be
related to data rates and recording time desired.
• In tape based recorders, interface with the
ground processing system is essential.
• The instrumentation design function normally
will assure that the local facility can handle the
SSRs or Tape based recorders
• IRIG standards exist for most recording
approaches.
Telemetry
• Telemetry systems are used either in conjunction with
airborne recorders to transmit portions of the entire
data stream to the ground or with only ground recorders
when the entire data stream is transmitted such as tests
of air-to-air or air-to-ground missiles.
• Telemetry without on-board recording may also be
necessary for cost, safety, or space reasons.
• For most military testing, encryption of any transmitted
PCM data is required.
• This requires additional equipment both on the vehicle
to randomize the PCM bit stream and on the ground to
recover the original data.

Telemetry
• Availability of special encryption equipment for
both the vehicle and more particularly, ground
play-back, is often a problem; also, the more items
or procedures that are inserted between the
measurand and the FTE, the more possibility of
failure or a misunderstanding.
• The delay in receiving processed data from a
recorder must be balanced against total data loss if
an encryption failure occurs (all TM) and the ability
to monitor system health, safety, and security
requirements for an encrypted vehicle.
• Flight Test Instrumentation (FTI) addresses the
following:
– Test methods,
– Data gathering and Data analysis techniques,
– Unique test support

There are a number of basic aircraft parameters that are
common to most modern aircraft FTI:
• aircraft position • Parameters required for navigation

• Airspeed systems flight testing like :
• Altitude – baro-correction
– Vertical speed
• Vertical velocity
– Ground speed (wind speed and direction can
• Mach number be determined from airspeed and ground
• Heading speed)
• Angles of pitch, roll, sideslip, yaw, and – Desired track,
attack – Track angle error, flight plan vertical flight
path and flight path error
• Accelerations along body axes.
– Roll and pitch steering commands,
• Flightpath trajectory involving continuous
– Throttle command
determination of the Earth relative
– system mode / status discrete
position of the aircraft. Particularly
– Inertial system mode data
aircraft position (i.e., 3-dimensional
– Inertial system control data
coordinates) from the system under test

Displacement Transducers
• Displacement may be considered as the
primary measurement
– because it may be either a discrete
measurement, or it may be part of a
transducer.
– it is the most frequent method of
transducing from mechanical to electrical
data.
• There are two types of displacement
Transducers : Direct and Inertial
• A direct measurement is one where an attachment may
be made to both the fixed and moving parts. This is
satisfactory for relatively small displacements, possibly
up to about 1 metre, such as may be required about the
aircraft structure.
• However, when it is necessary to measure the much
larger distances found in navigation, it is impossible to
make a direct attachment and inertial methods are
necessary. For linear inertial measurement it is normal to
use an accelerometer producing acceleration data which
may be integrated twice to produce displacement data.
For rotary movement, gyros are usually used, either the
free gyro for angular displacement or the rate gyro for
angular velocity.
• Vibration and shock is frequently measured by
inertial means using accelerometers, because,
although displacements may be small, it is
invariably impossible to establish a known
fixed reference.
• By the nature of vibration, the structure
around the vibrating object usually absorbs
some of the vibration energy and sets up
vibration modes of its own.

Potentiometers
The potentiometer is probably the most basic of

displacement transducers, where a voltage is placed
across a resistive element and a moving wiper contact
picks off a part of this voltage in proportion to
displacement.
The resistive potentiometer
is perhaps the best-known
displacement-measuring
device. It consists of a
resistance element with a
movable contact as shown in
Figure
A voltage Vs is applied across the two ends A and B of the resistance
element and an output voltage V0 is measured between the point of
contact C of the sliding element
and the end of the resistance element A. A linear relationship exists
between the output voltage V0 and the distance AC, which can be
expressed by:
Three different types of potentiometer exist, wire-wound, carbon-film
and plastic-film,
so named according to the material used to construct the resistance
element
• Resistive Potentiometers are simple and economic
method which is widely used.
• It has a number of disadvantages, particularly for
long term use, because of the rubbing contact, there
is friction, stiction, and always the possibility of poor
contact because of dirt and vibration
• All these degrade the accuracy and can produce
noise (unwanted signals)
• Additionally, in a permanent installation, wear
becomes a problem, which would mean replacement
and recalibration
• Because of these disadvantages, alternative methods
are often sought, in particular, inductive transducers.
Inductive Displacement Transducers
These work on electromagnetic principles in a similar

manner to the electrical transformer, Mechanically and
magnetically there are many configurations including the
E and I pick-off, the rotary (angular) pick-off, and the
linear LVDTs

(RVDT)

Linear Variable / Rotary Variable Displacement Transducers
• The windings are frequently arranged so that there is zero
secondary output at balance, and the output increases linearly
with displacement of a magnetic (not magnetised) slug; the
direction being indicated by the electrical, input to output phase
relationships.
• Inductive transducers frequently take the physical form of a
potentiometer, although the electrical aspects are obviously very
different.
• One of the major factors which may make this type of transducer
so rugged and reliable is the fact that often the only moving parts
are simple magnetic components with no electrical connections.
• The measurement range might typically be from a few micro-
metres or a few min's of arc for the most sensitive instruments,
to 1 metre or so. However, rotary movement is usually limited to
+ 45 deg.
Capacitive Displacement Transducers
• Here change in capacitance can be used to measure
displacement or pressure (through a diaphragm)
• A capacitance is formed when two conductive plates are
placed together and they have the ability to store to
store electrical charge.
• The amount of stored charge depends upon the area,
the spacing, and the material between the plates (the
dielectric); thus any one of these may be changed to give
an electrical change with respect to displacement.
• This principle is very simple to use mechanically,
although it is not so easy to contend with electrically;
however it has the particular advantage of minimal
loading upon the measurement (i.e. good finesse).
Capacitive Displacement Transducers
• A capsule instrument such as an altimeter or a
barometer is relatively fragile, and any load applied
would reduce the accuracy, but a capacitive pick-off
(PO) may be simply applied in the form of a single
plate, using the metallic surface of the capsule as the
second plate.
• A number of precision altitude and airspeed
transducers of this class are available, but the use of
capacitance as a means of direct displacement
measurement is generally limited to situations
requiring high precision and given clean conditions

• An important use of the capacitive principle is the
measurement of fuel level.
• In most aircraft it is not sufficient to use the float type of
instrument because of possible unreliability, inaccuracy,
and often, the multiple and irregularly shaped tank
installations.
• The principle is to use the dielectric change to give an
indication of fuel level.
• The transducer may consist simply of two rods or
concentric tubes placed close together and down into the
tank, and as the fuel covers these components, there is a
change of dielectric and hence capacitance which may then
be signal conditioned to provide data on fuel level.
• The probes may be shaped to compensate for tank shape
and there may be a number of probes in each tank.
The piezo-electric principle (for displacement
measurement)
• Piezo-electric materials have the property of generating a
voltage across their surfaces when they are physically
distorted.
• If a conductive coating (often a silver plating process) is
placed upon two opposite surfaces, conductors may be
connected to sense these voltages.
• The materials may be natural (i.e., quartz) or man-made,
and they are produced in many shapes and sizes and for
a variety of distortions, i.e., twist, bend, or compress.
• This principle is fundamentally a displacement in the
sense of the material distortion, it is unusual to use the
method for the direct measurement of displacement.
Strain gauges (metallic)
• As the name implies, this device is for measuring strain,
but by using mechanical cantilevers, diaphragms, etc.
• It can be considered as a displacement transducer.
Fundamentally the strain gauge is a piece of metallic
wire held between two points.
• This wire will have a resistance (R) and a length (e), but
if the wire is stretched slightly (well within the elastic
limits) the length will increase and the area will
decrease.
• This physical change creates a resistance increase and
because there are the two physical changes, the
resistance change (ΔR) is approximately twice the
length change (Δ e). This is known as the gauge factor
(GF), and GF = 2 (approximately)
The strain gauge may be extremely sensitive, ranging from
around 2000 micro-strain (0.2 percent elongation), down to
around 10 micro-strain (0.001 percent) under exceptional
circumstances; however, great care is required with balance
circuitry and temperature effects at the low levels.
Encoders
The term encoder refers broadly to a range of
transducers which rely upon a mechanical scale or
grating as a reference and a means of translating
displacement or velocity into electrical data.
The scale is frequently in the form of an optical
grating, either circular, or in some linear form.
Techniques using the basic grating may be used for
high-accuracy displacement or velocity measurement;
or by employing gratings with more complex patterns,
true digital encoders (mechanical A-D converters) may
be constructed.

• Many types of digital transducers employ a shaft-position
encoder as shown in Figure.
• Encoders may be grouped into two major categories, viz. the
brush and the brushless types.
• Figure shows a brush-type encoder for simplicity, although in
practice this type is rather sensitive to vibration and other
errors.
• The brushless techniques are normally employed, using optical
methods, or in some cases inductive or capacitive methods.
• In the brush type, the disk is composed of a number of
conductive and nonconductive areas on several concentric
rings, one ring for each bit in the output. The conductive areas
are all connected to an electrical source, and a digital 1 is
produced for a contact and a 0 for no contact, and thus each
angular position is represented by a discrete digital code.

VELOCITY AND FLOW MEASUREMENT
• A primary measurement for aircraft is airspeed, normally
measured by the pitot and static systems, thus giving a pressure
difference.
• More broadly, velocity encompasses the measurement of linear
and rotary machinery components, typically involving a whole
range of tachometers, ground speed, and all the related vehicle
speed measurements.
• We can also measure velocity and flow rates of liquids (Fuel) and
air using fluid dynamics methods like venturi flow and turbine
wheel methods:-
Pitot static systems Tachometers
Turbine Flowmeters Mass Flowmeters
Anemometers

Pitot-static systems
• The basic concept is to measure the ram-head
pressure from a tube facing into the airstream and
to compare this as a difference with a static
pressure.
• Ideally, the static pressure is the ambient pressure
distant from any disturbance of the aircraft, but
standard installations normally take an average of a
number of static vents mounted at various quiet
positions on the aircraft surface.
• For research, it is common to have booms extending
beyond the aircraft aerodynamic disturbance, or
sometimes a trailing static is towed many metres
behind the aircraft.
The close-up view shows the AFTI F-16 air probe early in the
research program. It consists of a nose boom resembling a long
pipe, and four indicators that look and act like weather vanes. The
indicators on the left and right measure pitch, or the movement of
the airplane's nose up or down. Those on the top and bottom of
the boom measure yaw, or movement of the nose to the left or
right. Similar probes are standard on most research and prototype
aircraft. The data from the indicators is recorded aboard the
aircraft and/or radioed to the ground. This data includes both the
amount of yaw and pitch at any given time, and the rate at which
both motions changed in flight. This information, subsequently
processed and compared to wind tunnel results, may reveal
stability and aerodynamic abnormalities.
The two metal half-circles and their attachment fixtures are not
part of the air probe. Rather, they are used to calibrate the
indicators on the ground, enabling the data to be corrected for
instrument errors. The figure in the photograph is shown holding a
red "Remove Before Flight" ribbon, a reminder to the ground crew
that it must be taken off prior to a research mission.
Tachometers
• Standard tachometers are fundamentally electro-
magnetic generators which provide a linear
relationship between speed and electrical output,
therefore tachometers are self-generating.
• Typical aircraft engine tachos are ruggedly
constructed and give a three-phase voltage which
may be transmitted to the indicator on a ratio
basis.
• Other types produce either AC or DC, the DC being
more applicable to servo requirements.
• Some tachometers give purely a frequency or
pulse rate; these are more applicable to the more
accurate requirements and to digital systems.
Tachometers

Measurement of flow
Basically, this may be considered as an extension to velocity
measurement, and in practice many of the techniques are
common.
The techniques generally group into liquid flow (fuel, coolant, etc.)
and gas flow (air, etc.), although it is often possible to use the
same principle for both, i.e. pitots for air / gas flow and orifice
plates/pressure drop for liquid and similarly for turbine methods
and anemometry principles.
For engine performance measurement, the true requirement is to
measure the mass flow passing into the engines, for example, the
mass of fuel (i.e, Kg/h) being burned for a given performance.
In practice the majority of flowmeters measure rate of flow (and
hence volume) which is another form of velocity measurement.
Hence, mass flow must be derived from calculating density based
on temperature.
Turbine flowmeters
• Many aircraft use the turbine flowmeter principle to

measure fuel flow, one transducer for each engine. This
type of transducer is fitted directly into the pipeline to
the engine and contains a small turbine, which spins
round at a speed which is in proportion to the flow rate.
• Because fuel density changes are not usually significant
in normal service, it is satisfactory to calibrate the
transducer output in terms of mass flow.
• Compensations for temperature or fuel changes may be
built into this type of flowmeter.

• A small pick-off is placed near to the turbine vanes
which produces electrical pulses in proportion to
the flow rate.
• The normal method is to pass these pulses into an
electronic circuit which provides a meter indication
in the pilot’s cabin.
• The relatively simple analogue approaches to
processing these pulses only yield accuracies of a
percent or so and more accurate electronic logic
methods are used for test instrumentation to
provide either a numeric read-out or digital data
for such parameters as fuel consumed.

Mass flowmeters
• These tend to more complex and expensive and
therefore limited to installation where there is a strict
requirement for mass flow measurement.
• The basic principle is to impart an annular velocity
into the fuel as it passes through the transducer, and
the torque required to achieve this annular motion is
directly proportional to mass flow.

Anemometers were originally developed for the
measurement of wind velocity, and many devices may
come under this category.
These may include, cup-anemometers, pitot static
systems, vortex and ultra-sonic instruments,
but one of the major instruments is the hot-wire
anemometer.
The basic principle of hot wire anemometer is to measure
the cooling effect of a heated wire when placed into the
flow. The very fine filament wire is held on supports and
heated by an electrical current and thus the cooling effect
of the wire may be measured by resistance change. These
instruments are particularly used for the
various aerodynamic measurements and will respond up
to 100 kHz or more.MVJCE Aero Dept 15AE831 MODULE 1
2019 123
Force and Acceleration Measurement

Force and Acceleration Measurement (I)
• The conventional spring-mass accelerometer,
when used as a general purpose instrument, only
nominal accuracies of 1% or so are obtained; also,
there may be a high cross-sensitivity of 3% or so.
• There are a few instruments of greater precision,
but the cost of these generally makes them less
competitive with the force balance class of
transducer.
• In all cases, the frequency range is generally from
steady-state to about 250 Hz.

• The spring and mass configuration is constructed
in a rigid manner so that ostensively only one
axis is sensitive to acceleration, frequently
utilising leaf-springs, diaphragms, or cantilevers.
• The mass is usually made of a stable material and
may form part of the magnetic circuit of a
displacement pick-off, whilst other designs use
potentiometers, strain gauges, either wire or
semi-conductor (piezoresistive), or of fluid
capacitive pick-offs.

Force and Acceleration Measurement (II)
Piezo-electric accelerometers (Servo Feedback Transducer)
• These are essentially for dynamic measurement, such

as vibration and shock.
• There is no steady-state response, but the top
measurement frequencies may be in kilohertz to
hundreds of kilohertz region.
• In essence, the mass is directly attached to a piece of
piezo material which provides both the spring and
signal output function, and this very stiff construction
usually provides the very high natural frequency fn.

• It is essential to isolate the piezo/mass system from the
case of the instrument in order to provide immunity
from temperature and case distortion effects, and
therefore, only the very cheapest of instruments have
this basic construction.

Force and Acceleration Measurement (III)
Force balance accelerometers
• These generally replace the spring-mass instrument
when good performance is required.
• They are very expensive but provide very good accuracy
and frequency performance, ranging from steady-state
to as high as I kHz or so.
• Generally this is used for applications such as inertial
navigation systems

Force balance accelerometers (Servo Feedback Transducer)
• This technique is basically a principle of forcing all the

moving parts of the measurement transducer to remain
at balance position by opposing changes due to the
parameter with some form of servo controlled force
system (Fig. 5.18).
• For an accelerometer, the mass is controlled in a servo

loop such that, immediately a movement of the mass is
sensed, a force is applied which resists any further
movement.

Force balance accelerometers
• As long as the gain of the servo loop is high, there is no

movement of the mass, and the only change which
takes place is an electrical change of current into the
forcing coils. This current may then be used as the data
representing acceleration.

Vibration measurement
• The basic definition of vibration is displacement peak
to peak at a given frequency, although peak values are
often used. In most cases the measurement will be
made inertially using an accelerometer, and thus the
data must be integrated twice to deduce the
displacement.
• Direct measurement of vibration may be achieved by
using a spring mass instrument with a very low fn and
making all measurements at frequencies well above fn.
Thus the transducer is constructed in a similar manner
to an accelerometer, but with a very low fn and no
damping. Thus the mass remains seismically balanced
in space, and the transducer body moves with respect
to the mass. .
Vibration measurement
• Any large movements of the transducer would
create a limit stop situation, and therefore these
instruments are generally limited to stationary
measurements, i.e., stationary generators, engines,
etc.
• Various inductive or capacitive probe methods may
be used to measure the vibration displacement
provided a stable reference may be found. Optical
and particularly laser methods may be very
effective, but are often limited to the laboratory
situation.

Introduce Free Gyros, Rate Gyros

Discuss Pressure sensing
• Gauge Pressure
• Absolute Pressure
• Differential Pressure

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FLIGHT TESTING- INTRODUCTION

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Experimental Flight Production Flight

Operational Test and

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• The objectives of the Phase Two tests are to fine

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• Phase I: Obtaining a rough reading

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• aircraft position • Parameters required for navigation

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The potentiometer is probably the most basic of

These work on electromagnetic principles in a similar