Theory of Sampling

UNIT-III
Purpose of Sampling
• Suppose a study is conducted to know if college students from
Amritsar prefer healthy food over junk food. For this study, the
population from whom data can be collected is all the college
students from Amritsar. But the problem is that it will not be feasible
to ask every college student about his/her preference. Here the need
for choosing a sample from the population arises.
What is Sampling
• “The process of drawing a subset of people from a population so that
results with that subset may be generalized to the population.”
• Sampling is a process, which allows us to study a small group of
people from the large group to derive inferences that are likely to be
applicable to all the people of the large group. Sometimes it is not
feasible to study a whole group.
• It is too expensive and too time consuming to survey a whole
population in research study, we use sampling.
Sample Vs. Sampling
• Sample is the subset of the population. The process of selecting a
sample is known as sampling.
• Number of elements in the sample is the sample size.
What should be the desired characteristics of
a Sample?
• A proper sample must give a precise but correct picture of the
population from which it is drawn.
• The sample must be obtained by probability process. This would
permit the use of statistical procedures to describe and analyze the
sample data.
• The sample should be as small as precision considerations permit.
• It should be as economical as possible and gathered swiftly to be
completed within the time schedule.
Concepts used in Sampling
• Universe or Population
• Stratum
• Elements
• Sample
Universe
• In sample language, a population or universe can be defined as any
collection of persons or objects or event in which one is interested.
• In other words a population consists of the people who are related to
the specific problem under investigation.
• For example, If we are studying the voting behavior or political
participation of the citizens of India then all the adult citizens of India,
living in India or outside will come under population.
Population Characteristics
• In research, we often speak in terms of population characteristics. e.g.
age, sex, income, place of residences, caste, occupation population
size, etc. at the same time all of these characteristics are measured.
• What characteristics are to be measured depends upon the nature
and type of problem under investigation.
Types of Universe
• The universe, on the basis of characteristics, could be divided in to three types.
• Uni-variate population - In which only one characteristic is considered, for studying
at a time. The characteristic may be age, income, sex, T.V. listening habit, etc.
• Bi-variate population - When we are measuring two characteristics simultaneously
of each member.
• Multivariate population - A multivariate universe is the one in which we consider
observations on three or more characteristics simultaneously. Several social factors
together determine the occurrence of an event.
e.g. a car accident on the road is often caused not only by the mechanical factor of
the car but also by the other factors like, the drivers mental and physical condition,
traffic volume, improper signals at crossing, pedestrians behavior etc.
Stratum
• When the population is divided into several groups on the basis of
one or several characteristics, we call each group as a stratum.
• For example, a given population may be divided into different
stratums on the basis of the cinema going habit of the people viz. (a)
males who visit cinema frequently,(b) males who rarely visit cinema;
(c) males who visit cinema occasionally; (d) males who do not at all
visit cinema. Thus the number of stratums would depend upon the
number of characteristics included for stratification.
Population Element
• By a population element we mean the units that make the
population. Such units may be an individual, an object, or even a
small group.
Sample
• By sample we mean the aggregate of objects, persons or elements,
selected from the universe. It is a portion or sub part of the total
population.
• The following two methods are used to collect information about the
population:-

Census • When each and every element or unit

of the population is studied

Sampling • When a small part of the population is

selected for study.
Why Sampling?
Advantages
• Helps to collect vital information more quickly. Even small samples, when properly selected,
help to make estimates of the characteristics of the population in a shorter time.
• The modern world is highly dynamic, therefore, any study must be completed in short time,
otherwise, by the time the survey is completed the situations, characteristics etc may have
changed.
• It cuts costs; enumeration of total population is much more costly than the sample studies.
• Sampling techniques often increases the accuracy of data. With small sample, it becomes
easier to check the accuracy of the data. Some sampling techniques/ methods make it
possible to measure the reliability of the sample estimates from the sample itself.
• From the administrative point of view also sampling becomes easier, because it involves less
staff, equipments etc.
 Techniques of Sampling

Probability Non Probability

Sampling Sampling
Probability Sampling Techniques

• In this method, each unit of the population has an equal chance of

selection.

Non-probability Sampling Techniques

• In this method, unit of the population have an unequal chance of

selection. Selection is not random in such sampling.
Multi-stage Simple Random
Sampling
sampling Method

Probability
Sampling
Techniques

Stratified
Systematic Random
Sampling
Method Sampling
Method

Cluster
Sampling
Simple Random Sampling Method
• In simple random sample, every element of the population has equal
chance of selection in the sample. It is used when complete and
accurate sampling frame is available.
• Lottery method, random number table, computer programs, etc. can
be used to draw sample randomly.
Stratified Random Sampling Method
• When the population is divided into different strata or groups and then
samples are selected from each stratum by simple random sampling
procedure, we call it as stratified random sampling method.
• On the basis of characteristics universe can be divided into different
strata or stratum, Each stratum has to be homogeneous from within such
a division can be done on the basis of any single criterion. e.g. on the
basis of age we can divide people into below 25 and above 25 groups, on
the basis of education into matriculates and non matriculates etc.
• Elements are then selected from each stratum through simple a random
sampling method.
Cluster Sampling
• In cluster sampling, clusters will be formed from the population and
then a cluster is chosen randomly. There is a difference between
cluster and strata. Strata are homogeneous groups of population,
whereas clusters are heterogeneous groups.
• Sample is chosen randomly from each stratum, whereas when a
cluster is selected all its units get selected.
Systematic Sampling Method
• In this method first of all a list is prepared of all the elements of the
universe on the basis of a selection criterion. A list may be prepared in
alphabetical order, as given in the telephone directory. Then from the
list every third, every tenth, every twentieth or any number in the like
manner can be selected.
• For the application of this method, preparing a list of all the elements
and numbering them is essential.
• A question arises here, “how will the first unit be selected?”
• The first unit of sample can be anyone chosen randomly.
Multi-stage sampling
• The method is used in selecting a sample from a very large area. As
the name suggests multi-stage sampling refers to a sampling
technique which is carried out in various stages.
• Normally a multi-stage sampling is the one that combines cluster and
random sampling methods.
 Quota
Sampling

Non-
Snowball Probability Purposive
Sampling Sampling Sampling
Techniques

Convenien
ce
Sampling
Quota Sampling
• In quota sampling, the population is divided in to groups, then each
group is allocated quota of same proportion as it has in the total
population.
• It is similar to stratified random sampling.
Purposive Sampling
• It is also known as judgment sampling. Sample is selected as per the
judgment of the researcher.
• It is used when the population is small.
Convenience Sampling
• Here, the researcher chooses the sample as per his/her convenience,
that is, those units of population will be selected which are in the easy
reach of the researcher.
Snowball Sampling
• In Snowball Sampling, initially a small sample is chosen. It is much
smaller than what is required. Then the selected sample units help in
further selection of more units, the new units further help in
identifying more units and this process continues till the sample is
smaller than the required size.
• In this way, sample size keeps on growing like a snowball which is
smaller in the beginning and as it rolls it keeps on growing bigger and
bigger. Hence it is called snowball sampling.
Essentials of Sampling
• Representativeness: A sample should be so selected that it truly represents
the universe, otherwise the results obtained may be misleading.
• Adequacy: The size of sample should be adequate otherwise it may not
represent the characteristics of the universe.
• Independence: All the items of the sample should be selected independently
of one another and all the items of the universe should have the same
chance of being selected in the sample.
• Homogeneity: The term homogeneity means that there is no basic
difference in the nature of the universe and that of the sample. It two
sample from the same universe are taken, they should give more or less the
same unit.
Size of Sample
• An important decision that has to be taken in adopting a sampling technique is about the size of the
sample. Size of the sample means the number of sampling units selected from the population to be
investigated.
• Different opinions have been expressed by experts on this point. Some suggest that the sample size
should be 5 percent of the size of population while others are of the opinion that the sample size should
be at least 10 percent. However, these views are of little use in practice because no hard and fast rule
can be laid down that sample size should be 5 percent, 10 percent or 25 percent of the universe size.
• It may be provided out that mere size alone does not ensure representativeness. A smaller sample, but
well selected sample, may be superior to a larger but badly selected sample. Similarly, if the size of the
sample is small, it may not represent the universe and the inference drawn about the universe may be
misleading. On the other hand, if the size of sample is very large, it may too burdensome financially,
require a lot of time and may have serious problems of managing it.
• Hence the sample size should neither be too small nor too large. It should be optimum. Optimum size is
that one that fulfils the requirements of 'efficiency', 'representativeness', 'reliability and 'flexibility'.
Determination of Sample Size
• A number of formulae have been devised for determining the sample
size depending upon the availability of information.
• n=
• Where,
n = sample size
z = value at a specified level of confidence or desired degree of
precision
σ = standard deviation of the population
d = difference between population mean and sample mean.
SAMPLING AND NON
SAMPLING ERRORS
Sampling Error
• Sampling Error denotes a statistical error arising out of a certain
sample selected being unrepresentative of the population of interest.
In simple terms, it is an error which occurs when the sample selected
does not contain the true characteristics, qualities or figures of the
whole population.
Non-Sampling Error
• Non-Sampling Error is an umbrella term which comprises of all the errors,
other than the sampling error. They arise due to a number of reasons, i.e.
error in problem definition, questionnaire design, approach, coverage,
information provided by respondents, data preparation, collection,
tabulation, and analysis.
• There are two types of non-sampling error:
1) Response Error: Error arising due to inaccurate answers were given by
respondents, or their answer is misinterpreted or recorded wrongly. It
consists of researcher error, respondent error and interviewer error.
2) Non-Response Error: Error arising due to some respondents who are a
part of the sample do not respond.
Differences Between Sampling and Non-
Sampling Error
1) Sampling error is a statistical error happens due to the sample
selected does not perfectly represents the population of interest.
Non-sampling error occurs due to sources other than sampling
while conducting survey activities is known as non-sampling error.
2) Sampling error arises because of the variation between the true
mean value for the sample and the population. On the other hand,
the non-sampling error arises because of deficiency and
inappropriate analysis of data.
3) Non-sampling error can be random or non-random whereas
sampling error occurs in the random sample only.
4) Sample error arises only when the sample is taken as a
representative of a population. As opposed to non-sampling error
which arises both in sampling and complete enumeration.
5) Sampling error is mainly associated with the sample size, i.e. as the
sample size increases the possibility of error decreases. On the
contrary, the non-sampling error is not related to the sample size,
so, with the increase in sample size, it won’t be reduced.
Thank you…!!