One Dimensional Steady State Conduction: By: Taz 1

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Chapter 3

One Dimensional Steady State


Conduction

By: Taz 1
Steady Heat Conduction In Plane Walls

 Consider steady heat conduction through the


walls of a house during a winter day. So that heat
is continuously lost to the outdoors through the
wall.
 The heat transfer through the wall is in the
normal direction to the wall surface, and no
significant heat transfer takes place in the wall in
other directions (there is no change in
temperature).

 If the air temperatures in and outside the house remain constant, then heat transfer
through the wall of a house can be modeled as steady and one-dimensional.
 The temperature of the wall in this case will depend on one direction only (say the
x-direction) and can be expressed as T(x).
Cont...
 Noting that heat transfer is the only energy interaction involved in this case and
there is no heat generation,
 The energy balance for the wall can be expressed as

or

 But for steady operation, since there is no change in the temperature


of the wall with time at any point

 Therefore, the rate of heat transfer into the wall must be equal to the rate of heat
transfer out of it. In other words, the rate of heat transfer through the wall must be
constant,
Temperature Distribution

 The temperature distribution in the wall can be


determined by solving the heat equation with the
proper boundary conditions.
 For steady-state conditions with no heat
generation within the wall.

 boundary conditions
 For one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in
a plane wall with no heat generation, the heat and
 Applying the condition at x = 0
flux is a constant, independent of x.
 If the thermal conductivity of the wall material is
 Similarly, at x = L,
assumed to be constant, the equation may be
integrated twice to obtain the general solution
Steady Heat Conduction
 For one-dimensional steady heat conduction through
the wall, we have T(x). Then Fourier’s law of heat
conduction for the wall can be expressed as

 Separating the variables in the above equation and


integrating from x = 0, to x = L,

The rate of heat conduction through a


 Performing the integrations and rearranging gives plane wall is proportional to the average
thermal conductivity, the wall area, and the
temperature difference, but is inversely
proportional to the wall thickness.

 Note that A is the area of the wall normal to the direction of heat transfer and, for
the plane wall, it is a constant independent of x. The heat flux is then
The Thermal Resistance Concept
 The rate of heat conduction through a plane wall

 This can be rearranged as

Where,

 is the thermal resistance of the wall against heat conduction or simply the
conduction resistance of the wall.
 Note that the thermal resistance of a medium depends on the geometry and the
thermal properties of the medium.
 The equation above for heat flow is analogous to the relation for electric current
flow I, expressed as
Cont...
 Newton’s law of cooling for convection heat transfer
rate can be rearranged as

where

 is the thermal resistance of the surface against heat convection, or simply the
convection resistance of the surface.
 Note that when the convection heat transfer coefficient is very large ( ), the
convection resistance becomes zero and . That is, the surface offers no
resistance to convection, and thus it does not slow down the heat transfer
process.
 This situation is approached in practice at surfaces where boiling and
condensation occur.
Cont...
 The rate of radiation heat transfer between a surface
of emissivity and area As at temperature Ts and the
surrounding surfaces at some average temperature
Tsurr can be expressed as

where

 is the thermal resistance of a surface against radiation, or the radiation


resistance, and

 is the radiation heat transfer coefficient. Note that both Ts and Tsurr must be in K
in the evaluation of hrad, depends strongly on temperature.
 The convection and radiation resistances are parallel to each other.
Cont...
 When , the radiation effect can properly be accounted for by replacing h in
the convection resistance relation by

 where hcombined is the combined heat transfer coefficient.

The thermal
resistance
network for
heat transfer
through a
plane wall
subjected to
convection
on both
sides, and
the electrical
analogy.
Thermal Resistance Network
 Now consider steady one-dimensional heat flow
through a plane wall of thickness L, area A, and
thermal conductivity k that is exposed to
convection on both sides to fluids at
temperatures and with heat transfer
coefficients h1 and h2, respectively.
 Assuming , the variation of temperature will be as shown in the figure.

 Under steady conditions we have

Or,

 which can be rearranged as

Or,
Cont...
 Adding the numerators and denominators yields

where

 The thermal resistances are in series, and the


equivalent thermal resistance is determined by
simply adding the individual resistances, just like
the electrical resistances connected in series.
 The rate of steady heat transfer between two surfaces is equal to the temperature
difference divided by the total thermal resistance between those two surfaces.
 The larger the resistance, the larger the temperature drop.
 In fact, the equation can be rearranged as
The temperature drop across any layer is equal to the rate of
heat transfer times the thermal resistance across that layer
Cont...
 It is sometimes convenient to express
heat transfer through a medium in an
analogous manner to Newton’s law of
cooling as

where U is the overall heat transfer


coefficient.

 Therefore, for a unit area, the overall heat transfer coefficient is equal to the inverse
of the total thermal resistance.
 By taking the surface at which the temperature is to be determined as one of the
terminal surfaces. For once Q is evaluated, the surface temperature T1 can be
determined from
The Composite Wall

 In practice we often encounter plane walls that


consist of several layers of different materials.
 The thermal resistance concept can still be
used to determine the rate of steady heat
transfer through such composite walls.
 Consider a plane wall that consists of two layers
(such as a brick wall with a layer of insulation).
 The rate of steady heat transfer through this
two-layer composite wall can be expressed as

where Rtotal is the total thermal resistance,


expressed as
Example 1
Example 2
Thermal Contact Resistance
 it is important to recognize that, in composite
systems, the temperature drop across the interface
between materials may be appreciable.
 an interface will contain numerous air gaps of
varying sizes that act as insulation because of the
low thermal conductivity of air. Thus, an interface
offers some resistance to heat transfer, and this
resistance per unit interface area is called the
thermal contact resistance.

 Consider heat transfer through two metal rods of cross-sectional area A that are
pressed against each other. Heat transfer through the interface of these two rods
can be expressed as
Cont...
 It can also be expressed in an analogous manner to Newton’s law of cooling as

 The quantity hc, which corresponds to the convection heat transfer coefficient, is
called the thermal contact conductance and is expressed as

 It is related to thermal contact resistance by

 The value of thermal contact resistance depends on the surface roughness and
the material properties as well as the temperature and pressure at the interface
and the type of fluid trapped at the interface.
Generalized Thermal Resistance Networks
 The thermal resistance concept or the electrical analogy can also be used to
solve steady heat transfer problems that involve parallel layers or combined
series-parallel arrangements.
 Approximate solutions can be obtained by
assuming one-dimensional heat transfer and
using the thermal resistance network.
 Consider the composite wall which consists of
two parallel layers. The thermal resistance
network, can be represented as

 Utilizing electrical analogy, we get

where
the resistances are in parallel.
Cont...
 Now consider the combined series-parallel
arrangement. The total rate of heat transfer through
this composite system can again be expressed as

where

and

 Once the individual thermal resistances are


evaluated, the total resistance and the total rate of
heat transfer can easily be determined.
 Two assumptions commonly used in solving using the thermal resistance network are
1) any plane wall normal to the x-axis is isothermal (i.e., to assume the temperature to
vary in the x-direction only) and
2) any plane parallel to the x-axis is adiabatic (i.e., to assume heat transfer to occur in the
x-direction only).
Example 3
Heat Conduction in Cylinders and Spheres
 If the fluid temperatures inside and outside the pipe remain constant, then heat
transfer through the pipe is steady.
 Thus heat transfer through the pipe can be modeled as steady and one-
dimensional.
 The temperature of the pipe in this case will depend on one
direction only (the radial r-direction) and can be expressed
as T= T(r).
 The temperature is independent of the azimuthal angle or the
axial distance.
 This situation is approximated in practice in long cylindrical
pipes and spherical containers. Heat is lost from a
hot water pipe to
 the rate of heat transfer into the pipe must be equal to the the air outside in
rate of heat transfer out of it. In other words, heat transfer the radial direction.

through the pipe must be constant, .


Cont...
 Consider a long cylindrical layer (such as a circular pipe)
of inner radius r1, outer radius r2, length L, and average
thermal conductivity k The two surfaces of the cylindrical
layer are maintained at constant temperatures T1 and T2.
 There is no heat generation in the layer and the thermal
conductivity is constant.
 Then Fourier’s law of heat conduction for heat transfer through the cylindrical
layer can be expressed as

Substituting A = 2πrL
and performing the
integrations give
Cont...
 Since This equation can be rearranged as

where

 is the thermal resistance of the cylindrical layer against heat conduction, or simply
the conduction resistance of the cylinder layer.
 Repeat the analysis above for a spherical layer by
taking and performing the integrations.
The result can be expressed as

where

 is the thermal resistance of the spherical layer against heat conduction, or simply the
conduction resistance of the spherical layer.
Cont...
 Now consider steady one-dimensional heat flow
through a cylindrical or spherical layer that is
exposed to convection on both sides to fluids.
 The thermal resistance network in this case
consists of one conduction and two convection
resistances in series, just like the one for the
plane wall, and the rate of heat transfer under
steady conditions can be expressed as

where Cylindrical layer

and Spherical layer

 Note that the thermal resistances are in series and thus the total thermal resistance is
determined by simply adding the individual resistances.
Multilayered Cylinders and Spheres
 Steady heat transfer through multilayered
cylindrical or spherical shells can be handled
just like multilayered plane walls by simply
adding an additional resistance in series for
each additional layer.
 For example, the steady heat transfer rate
through the three-layered composite cylinder
of length L with convection on both sides can
be expressed as

 where Rtotal is the total thermal resistance, expressed


Cont...
 can also be used for a three-layered
spherical shell by replacing the thermal
resistances of cylindrical layers by the
corresponding spherical ones.
 Once Q is known, we can determine any
intermediate temperature Tj by applying
the relation .
 For example, once Q has been calculated,
the interface temperature T2 between the
first and second cylindrical layers can be
determined from Although both relations will give the same
result, we prefer the first one since it
involves fewer terms and thus less work.

 We could also calculate T2 from


Example 5
Critical Radius of Insulation
 Adding more insulation to a wall or to the attic always decreases heat transfer.
 The thicker the insulation, the lower the heat transfer rate.
 This is expected, since the heat transfer area A is constant, and adding insulation
always increases the thermal resistance of the wall without increasing the
convection resistance.
 Adding insulation to a cylindrical pipe or a
spherical shell, however, is a different matter.
 The additional insulation increases the
conduction resistance of the insulation layer
but decreases the convection resistance of
the surface because of the increase in the
outer surface area for convection.
 The heat transfer from the pipe may increase or decrease, depending on which
effect dominates.
Cont...
 Consider a cylindrical pipe of outer radius r1 whose
outer surface temperature T1 is maintained
constant.
 The rate of heat transfer from the insulated pipe to
the surrounding air can be expressed as

 The variation of with the outer radius of the insulation r2 is plotted. The value of r2 at
which reaches a maximum is determined from the requirement that
(zero slope).
 Performing the differentiation and solving for r2 yields the critical radius of insulation
for a cylindrical body to be.
The critical radius of insulation for
a spherical shell is
Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces
 The rate of heat transfer from a surface at a temperature Ts to the surrounding
medium at is given by Newton’s law of cooling as

 There are two ways to increase the rate of heat transfer:


 to increase the convection heat transfer coefficient h or
 to increase the surface area As.
 Increasing h may require the installation of a pump or fan, or
replacing the existing one with a larger one,
 but this approach may or may not be practical. Besides, it
may not be adequate.
 The alternative is to increase the surface area by attaching Fins made of highly
conductive
to the surface extended surfaces called fins. materials such as
Cont...
 The thermal conductivity of the fin material can have a strong effect on the
temperature distribution along the fin and therefore influences the degree to
which the heat transfer rate is enhanced.
 Ideally, the fin material should have a large thermal conductivity to minimize
temperature variations from its base to its tip.
 Finned surfaces are manufactured by extruding, welding, or wrapping a thin
metal sheet on a surface.
 Fins enhance heat transfer from a surface by exposing a larger surface area to
convection and radiation.
 The different fin configurations are:

Straight fin nonuniform cross section Annular fin Pin fin


Cont...
 In the analysis of fins, assuming steady operation with no heat generation in the
fin, the thermal conductivity k of the material to remain constant, and the
convection heat transfer coefficient h to be constant and uniform over the entire
surface of the fin.
 The value of h is usually much lower at the fin base than it is at the fin tip
because the fluid is surrounded by solid surfaces near the base
 Fin Equation

 Consider a volume element of a fin at location x


having a length of Δx, cross sectional area of Ac, and
a perimeter of p.
 Under steady conditions, the energy balance on this
volume element can be expressed as

or
Fin Equation

where
 Substituting and dividing by Δx, we obtain

 Taking the limit as Δx → 0 gives

3.1

 From Fourier’s law of heat conduction we have

 Substitution of this relation into Eq. 3.1 gives the differential equation governing
heat transfer in fins,

3.2
 In general, the cross-sectional area Ac and the perimeter p of a fin vary with x,
which makes this differential equation difficult to solve.
Cont...

 In the special case of constant cross section and constant thermal conductivity,
the differential equation 3.2 reduces to

3.3

where
 The temperature excess

 At the fin base

 Equation 3.3 is a linear, homogeneous, second-order differential equation with


constant coefficients.
 Its general solution is of the form

3.4
Cont...

 The temperature of the plate to which the fins are attached is normally known
in advance.
 Therefore, at the fin base we have a specified temperature boundary condition,
expressed as
 Boundary condition at fin base:

 At the fin tip we have several possibilities,


including specified temperature, negligible heat
loss (idealized as an insulated tip), convection,
and combined convection and radiation.
 Next, we consider each case separately.
1) Infinitely Long Fin (T fin tip  T )
Cont...
Boundary condition at fin tip:
 Noting that the proper value of the constant is θb, and the
solution function we are looking for is

 This function satisfies the differential equation as well as the requirements that
the solution reduce to θb at the fin base and approach zero at the fin tip for
large x.
 Noting that and the variation of temperature
along the fin in this case can be expressed as

Very long fin:

 Note that the temperature along the fin in this case


decreases exponentially from Tb to T ,
 from Fourier’s law of heat conduction fin

Very long fin:


Cont...

 Alternatively, the rate of heat transfer from the fin


could also be determined by considering heat
transfer from a differential volume element of the fin
and integrating it over the entire surface of the fin.
That is,

 The two approaches described are equivalent and


give the same result since, under steady
conditions,
 The heat transfer from the exposed surfaces of
the fin is equal to the heat transfer to the fin at the
base.
Cont...
.
2) Negligible Heat Loss from the Fin Tip (Insulated fin tip, Q fin tip  0)

 The fin tip can be assumed to be insulated, and the condition at the fin tip can
be expressed as

Boundary condition at fin tip:

 The application of these two conditions on the general solution (Eq. 3.4) yields,
after some manipulations, this relation for the temperature distribution:

Adiabatic fin tip:

 The rate of heat transfer from the fin can be determined again from Fourier’s law
of heat conduction:
Adiabatic fin tip:
Cont...
3) Convection (or Combined Convection and Radiation) from Fin Tip

 The fin tips, in practice, are exposed to the surroundings, and thus the proper
boundary condition for the fin tip is convection that also includes the effects of
radiation.
 A practical way of accounting for the heat
loss from the fin tip is to replace the fin
length L in the relation for the insulated tip
case by a corrected length defined as

Corrected fin length:


where Ac is the cross-sectional area and
p is the perimeter of the fin at the tip.

 The corrected lengths for rectangular and


cylindrical fins are easily determined to be
t is the thickness of the rectangular fins
and and D is the diameter of the cylindrical fins.
Fin Efficiency
 In reality, however, the temperature of the fin will drop along the fin, and thus the
heat transfer from the fin will be less because of the decreasing temperature
difference T ( x)  T toward the fin tip.
 To account for the effect of this decrease in
temperature on heat transfer, we define a fin
efficiency as

or

 For the cases of constant cross section of very


long fins
Cont...
 In reality, however, the temperature of the fin will drop along the fin, and thus the
heat transfer from the fin will be less because of the decreasing temperature
difference T ( x)  T toward the fin tip.
 To account for the effect of this decrease in
temperature on heat transfer, we define a fin
efficiency as

or

 For the cases of constant cross section of very


long fins
Cont...
 For the cases of constant cross section of fins with insulated tips

 since Afin = pL for fins with constant cross section.

 Fin efficiency relations are developed for fins of various profiles and are plotted
in Fig. below for fins on a plain surface and for circular fins
Fin Effectiveness
 In fact, there is no assurance that adding fins on a surface will enhance heat
transfer. The performance of the fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement
in heat transfer relative to the no-fin case.
 The performance of fins expressed in terms of
the fin effectiveness fin is defined as

 An effectiveness of indicates that the


addition of fins to the surface does not affect
heat transfer at all.
 An effectiveness of indicates that
the fin actually acts as insulation, slowing  An effectiveness of
down the heat transfer from the surface, indicates that fins are enhancing
used low thermal conductivity materials heat transfer from the surface
Cont...
 However, the use of fins cannot be justified unless  fin is sufficiently larger than 1.
 Finned surfaces are designed on the basis of maximizing effectiveness for a
specified cost or minimizing cost for a desired effectiveness.
 Note that both the fin efficiency and fin effectiveness are related to the
performance of the fin, but they are different quantities.
 However, they are related to each other by

 The effectiveness of such a long fin is determined to be

since Ac = Ab in this case

 Important consideration in the design and selection of the fins:


 The thermal conductivity k: the fin material should be as high as possible
 The ratio of the perimeter to the cross-sectional area of the fin p/Ac should be as
high as possible.
 The use of fins is most effective in applications involving a low convection heat
transfer coefficient.
Cont...

 Consider the unfinned portion of the surface as well


as the fins.
 Therefore, the rate of heat transfer for a surface
containing n fins can be expressed as

 An overall effectiveness for a finned surface as the


ratio of the total heat transfer from the finned
surface to the heat transfer from the same surface
if there were no fins, The overall fin effectiveness depends
on the fin density (number of fins per
unit length) as well as the effectiveness
of the individual fins.

 The overall effectiveness is a better measure of the performance of a finned


surface than the effectiveness of the individual fins.
Proper Length of a Fin
 An important step in the design of a fin is the determination of the appropriate
length of the fin once the fin material and the fin cross section are specified.
 You may be tempted to think that the longer the fin, the larger the surface area
and thus the higher the rate of heat transfer.

 Therefore, for maximum heat transfer, the fin


should be infinitely long.
 However, the temperature drops along the fin
exponentially and reaches the environment
temperature at some length.
 To get a sense of the proper length of a fin, the
ratio of these two heat transfers is
Heat transfer
ratio:

 Reduction in the size and possibly the cost of the fin.


Example 6
Heat Transfer in Common Configurations

 Many problems encountered in practice are two- or three-dimensional and


involve rather complicated geometries for which no simple solutions are
available.
 The steady rate of heat transfer between these two surfaces is expressed as

where S is the conduction shape factor, which has the dimension of length,
and k is the thermal conductivity of the medium between the surfaces.

 The conduction shape factor depends on the geometry of the system only.

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