Lesson No. 2

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LESSON NO.

2
TRANSMISSION LINES
LESSON OBJECTIVES: AT THE END OF THE LESSON, THE STUDENT
WOULD BE ABLE TO
1. Discuss the components of power transmission
2. Explain the parameters of transmission lines
3. Calculate the geometric mean radius and distance of single and
stranded transmission conductors
A typical transmission lines
Principal Elements of a High Voltage Transmission Line
1. Conductor
2. Transformer
3. Line Insulator
4. Support:
a. wood poles
b. concrete poles
c. steel tower/steel poles
5. Protective Device:
a. circuit breaker Device
b. fuse cut-off
c. relays
d. Ground wire
e. lightning Arrester
6. Voltage Control Device
7. Other Equipment for voltage control System
Types of Conductors:-
Mainly we are having four types of conductors.
1. Solid conductors.
2. Homogeneous Stranded conductors.
3. Composite Stranded conductors
4. Bundled conductors
Solid conductor:
1. Solid conductors is single piece of conductor
2. These conductors may be of copper (or) Aluminum
3. It is having high mechanical strength and tensile strength
4. Circular solid conductor will be preferred to make electrical field
same throughout the surface of the conductor.
5. There is no application of solid conductors as transmission lines
6. Flat (or) solid conductors are used for power transformer
winding
Homogeneous stranded conductors
A number of strands are taken and are twisted together to increase
the current carrying capacity by maintaining the same operating
voltage.
1. All strands are of same material
2. Compared to stranded conductor it is having high mechanical
strength and low tensile strength.
3. Stringing is easy in stranded conductor so transportation is easy
Composite stranded conductor
Strands of different materials are twisted together to form the stranded
conductor. Its purpose is to improve the tensile strength.
1. As the layer size is increased, the number of strands increase in the
following manner : 1+6+12+24+30+…
2. If d is the diameter of each conductor and n is the number of layers
then the diameter of the stranded conductor is
D = (2n – 1) d
3. Generally ACSR conductor is represented by x/y
x = number of aluminum Or steel strand
y = number of aluminum or steel strand
In power conductor the aluminum strand is greater than the steel strand
Bundled conductor
When voltage is above 230kV, corona loss and interference with the
communication lines is more. Corona occurs when the surface
potential gradient of a conductor exceeds the dielectric strength of
the surrounding air. This causes ionization of the area near the
conductor. The high voltage surface gradient is reduced by using
two or more conductors per phase in close proximity. This is called
conductor bundling.

The conductors of a bundle are separated at regular intervals


with spacer dampers that prevent clashing of the conductors and
prevent them from swaying in the wind.
Types of conductors used in overhead Transmission
Lines:
1. AAC – All Aluminum Conductor
- have higher tensile strength than the
ordinary electrical conductor grade of
Aluminum
2. AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor
3. ACSR – Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced
- consist of a central core of steel strands
surrounded by layers of Aluminum strands(commonly
used in high voltage)
4. ACAR - Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced
- has a central core of high strength Aluminum
surrounded by layers of electrical conductor grade
Aluminum 46KV up high voltage
Types of Conductors
1. Copper.
Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high
electrical conductivity and greater tensile strength. It is always used
in the hard drawn form as stranded conductor. Although hard
drawing decreases the electrical conductivity slightly yet it
increases the tensile strength considerably.
2. Aluminum.
Aluminum is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has
much smaller conductivity and tensile strength. The relative
comparison of the two materials is briefed
below:
(i) The conductivity of aluminum is 60% that of copper. The smaller
conductivity of aluminum means that for any particular
transmission efficiency, the X-sectional area of conductor must be
larger in aluminum than in copper.
(ii) The specific gravity of aluminum (2·71 gm/cc) is lower than that
of copper (8·9 gm/cc).Therefore, an aluminum conductor has
almost one-half the weight of equivalent copper conductor. For this
reason, the supporting structures for aluminum need not be made
so strong as that of copper conductor.
(iii) Aluminum conductor being light, is liable to greater swings and
hence larger cross-arms are required.
(iv) Due to lower tensile strength and higher co-efficient of linear
expansion of aluminum, the sag is greater in aluminum conductors.
Transmission line model
A transmission line is used for the transmission of electrical power
from generating substation to the various distribution units.
Characteristics parameters (per unit length)
1. Series resistance (R)
2. Shunt conductance (G)
3. Series inductance (L)
4. Shunt capacitance (C)
Series resistance
The DC resistance of a conductor at a temperature T is given by:
𝑹 = 𝝆𝒍/𝑨
where
ρ= conductor resistivity at temperature T, Ω-m
l = the length of the conductor
A = the current-carry cross-sectional area of the conductor
The AC resistance of a conductor is given by:
𝑹𝒂𝒄 =𝑷𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 / 𝑰2
where
Ploss – real power dissipated in the conductor in watts
I – rms conductor current
Ipk = √2 Irms
Transmission line conductor resistance depends on
Spiraling:
The purpose of introducing a steel core inside the stranded
aluminum conductors is to obtain a high strength-to-weight ratio. A
stranded conductor offers more flexibility and easier to
manufacture than a solid large conductor. However, the total
resistance is increased because the outside strands are larger than
the inside strands on account of the spiraling.
The layer resistance-per-length of each spirally wound conductor
depends on its total length as follows:
Skin Effect
An increase in frequency causes non uniform current
density. This result is called skin effect.
- also defined as the tendency of current to move outward
the surface of conductor. AC resistance is greater than dc
resistance of the line because of skin effect. Skin effect increases
with the increase of frequency, area, permeability, temperature and
size of conductor.
Rt = Ro [1 + ά(T2 – To)]
When an AC current is applied to the conductor, the current
concentrates near the surface of the conductor and its strength
decreases as you go towards the center of the conductor. The
depth till which current flows in a conductor is called as Skin
Depth.
Shunt conductance
1. Conductance is associated with power losses between the
conductors or between the conductors and ground.
2. Such power losses occur through leakage currents on insulators
and via a corona
3. Leakage currents are affected by contaminants such dirt and
accumulated salt accumulated on insulators. Meteorological
factors such as moisture
4. Corona loss occurs when the electric field at the surface of a
conductor causes the air to ionize and thereby conduct.
5. Corona loss depends on:
a. Conductor surface irregularities
b. Meteorological conditions such as humidity, fog, and rain
6. Losses due to leakage currents and corona loss are often small
compared to direct I2 R losses on TLs and are typically neglected
in power flow studies.
Corona discharge
When corona occurs it causes power loss into the transmission
line. Which reduced the efficiency of the transmission line.
Can be calculated using an equation known as Peek's Formula.
EXAMPLE NO. 1
1. What is the DC resistance in Ω/mile of a 1.25 inch diameter solid
aluminum wire with resistivity 2.65x10-8Ω-m.
2. The resistance of a copper wire at 0oC is 30Ω. Find the
resistance of the nickel wire at 00C if its resistance at 400C is equal
to the resistance of copper at the same temperature.
The alpha of copper = -234.5
The alpha of Nickel = -147
3. The power loss of a 50Km, 0.6 inch copper conductor is 150
watts at a current of 1.27A peak current. Calculate the frequency of
the current flowing in the conductor. Resistivity of copper is
1.68x10-8 Ω-m
4. A 3 phase transmission line is designed to deliver 200MVA at
220kv over a distance of 63Km. The total transmission line loss
should not exceed 2.5 percent of the rated line if the resistivity of
the conductor line is 2.8x10-8Ω-m, determine the conductor
diameter.
Line inductance
When a current flows through a conductor, a magnetic flux is set
up which links the conductor.
The current also establishes a magnetic field proportional to the
current in the wire.
Due to the distributed nature of a TL we are interested in the
inductance per unit length (H/m).
The inductance of a transmission line is calculated as flux linkages per
ampere.
If permeability μ is constant, sinusoidal current produces sinusoidally
varying flux in phase with the current. The resulting flux linkages can
then be expressed as a phasor λ and

If i, the instantaneous value of current, is substituted for the phasor I,


then λ should be the value of the instantaneous flux linkages produced
by i. Flux linkages are measured in weber-turns, Wbt.
i = 5 SIN (377t + 30)A
I = 5∟30 A
Flux linkages between two points external to an isolated conductor
As a step in computing inductance due to flux external to a
conductor, let us derive an expression for the flux linkages of an
isolated conductor due only to that portion of the external flux
which lies between two points at DI and D2 meters from the center
of the conductor. In the Figure P I and P2 are two such points. The
conductor carries a current of I A
Inductance of a single phase two wire line
Flux linkages of one conductor in a group
A more general problem than that of the two-wire line is presented
by one conductor in a group of conductors where the sum of the
currents in all the conductors is zero. Such a group of conductors
is shown in the figure. Conductors 1 , 2, 3, …, n carry the phasor
currents I1, I2, I3 …, In " The distances of these conductors from a
remote point P are indicated on the figure as D1P , D2P, D3P …DnP Let
us determine λ1P1 the flux linkages of conductor 1 due to I1 internal
flux linkages but excluding all the flux beyond the point P.
Inductance of composite conductor lines
EXAMPLE NO. 2
1. Calculate the flux linkage and the inductance of an isolated
conductor carrying a current of 10A at points 2 meters and 3
meters
2. The total inductance of a conductor at 2m is 9.264x10 -7H/m.
what is the radius of the conductor?
3. Two conductor in the figure is separated 2 meters apart if each
of the conductor has a radius of 2.5cm. Calculate the total
inductance(loop inductance) of the system.
4. A three phase conductor are symmetrically spaced with 2 meters
each and 1.2cm of equal radius. Calculate the total inductance of
the system.
5. Calculate the GMR of the given set of conductors if r = 1.5cm
Unsymmetrical spacing
When 3-phase line conductors are not equidistant from each other,
the conductor spacing is said to be unsymmetrical. Under such
conditions, the flux linkages and inductance of each phase are not
the same. A different inductance in each phase results in unequal
voltage drops in the three phases even if the currents in the
conductors are balanced.
Therefore, the voltage at the receiving end will not be the same for
all phases. In order that voltage drops are equal in all conductors,
we generally interchange the positions of the conductors at regular
intervals along the line so that each conductor occupies the
original position of every other conductor over an equal distance.
Such an exchange of positions is known as transposition. The figure
shows the transposed line. The phase conductors are designated
as A, B and C and the positions occupied are numbered 1, 2 and 3.
The effect of transposition is that each conductor has the same
average inductance.
6. Determine the inductance and reactive inductance of a 3 phase
line operating at 50 Hz and conductors arranged as given in figure.
The conductor diameter is 0.8 cm. find the inductance and reactive
inductance at 20Km.
7. A 3 phase 60Hz TL has its conductor arranged in triangular
formation so that the two sides is 25 ft and the third side is 42 ft,
the conductor is an ACSR 24/7 strand 556.5MCM. Determine the
inductance and inductive reactance of the line per mile. If the line
is 12 miles. Find the inductance and inductive reactance.
8. A three phase line is designed with equilateral spacing of 16 ft. it
is decided to build the same line with horizontal spacing (D13 = 2D12
= 2D23). The conductors are transposed, what would be the spacing
between adjacent conductor in order to obtain the same
inductance in the original design.
9. Two conductors of a single phase TL are 0.5cm and 0.75cm in
diameter respectively. The space between the conductors are 1.5
meters. Calculate
a. The size of the conductor in CMIL
b. The inductance of each line
c. Total inductance of the single phase line.
10. Determine the inductance of a single phase transmission line
consisting of three conductors of 2.5 mm radii in the ‘go’ conductor
and 5 mm radii in the return conductor. The configuration of line is
as shown in figure
11. A single phase line consist of two circuits in parallel.
Conductors a and a’ in parallel form the lead while conductor b and
b’ in parallel form of return circuit. Calculate the total inductance of
the line per km assuming that the current is equally shared by the
two parallel conductors. The diameter of each conductor is 30mm.
Bundled conductors
At extra high voltages (EHV), that is, voltages above 230KV, corona
with its resultant power loss and particularly its interference with
communications is excessive if the circuit has only one conductor
per phase. The high voltage gradient at the conductor in the EHV
range is reduced considerably by having two or more conductor per
phase in close proximity compared with the spacing between phases.
Such a line is said to be composed of bundled conductors. The
bundle consist of two, three or four conductors called
subconductor. The current will not divide exactly between the
conductors of the bundle unless there is a transposition of the
conductors within the bundle, but the difference is of no practical
importance and the GMD method is accurate for the calculations.
Advantage of bundled conductor over single conductors
1. The bundle conductors transmit bulk power with reduced losses,
thereby giving increase transmission efficiency
2. Since the bundle conductor lines have a higher capacitance to
neutral in comparison with the single conductor lines, therefore,
they have higher charging current, which helps improving the
power factor.
3. Since by bundling, the self GMD or GMR is increased, the
inductance per phase, in comparison with single conductor lines,
is reduced, as a result reactance per phase is reduced.
4. Bundled conductors reduced corona loss and radio interference.
12. Find the inductive reactance of a 3 phase bundled conductor
line with 2 conductors per phase with spacing 40cm. Phase to
phase separation is 7m in horizontal configuration. All condcutors
are ACSR with diameter 3.5cm.
ASSIGNMENT NO. 1
1. Find the GMR of the given conductor
2. A part of transposition cycle of a 3 phase double circuit line is
shown. Radius of each conductor is 0.9cm. The conductors are
solid copper. Find the inductance per phase per km of the line.
3. Calculate the inductance per km or a 3 phase overhead TL using
1.24cm diameter conductors when these are placed at the corners
of a equilateral triangle of each side 2 meters
Capacitance of transmission lines
If a long, straight cylindrical conductor lies in a uniform medium
such as air and is isolated from other charges so that the charge is
uniformly distributed around its periphery, the flux is radial. All
points equidistant from such a conductor are points of
equipotential and have the same electric flux density
Potential difference between two points
Capacitance of single phase two wire line
If the line is supplied by z transformer having ground center tap
Line to line

Line to neutral
Capacitance of 3 phase line with equilateral spacing
For three phase unsymmetrical spacing
Effects of ground (three phase)
Bundled conductors
EXAMPLE NO. 3
1. Find the capacitive susceptance per mile of a single-phase line
operating at 60 Hz. The conductor is DRAKE , and spacing is 20 ft
between centers.
2. A three phase TL has flat horizontal spacing with 2 meters
between adjacent conductors. At a certain instant the charge on
one of the outside conductors is 60uC/Km and the charge on the
center conductor and on the other outside conductor is
-30uC/Km. the radius of each conductor is 0.9 cm. neglect the
effect of the ground and find the voltage drop between the two
identically charged conductor at the instant specified.
3. Calculate the capacitance to neutral per meter of a single phase
line composed of two single conductor having a diameter of 0.229
inch. The conductors are 10 ft apart and 25 feet above the ground.
4. A three phase 60hz line has flat horizontal spacing. The
conductors have an outside diameter of 3.28 cm with 12m between
conductors. Determine the capacitive reactance to neutral in ohm-
meter and the capacitive reactance of the line in ohms if its length
is 130 miles.
a. Assume negligible ground effect
b. If ground effect is considered if the conductor is placed 20m
from the ground
5. determine the capacitance and charging current per Km of the
460Kv line using two bundle conductor per phase. The diameter of
each conductor is 5cm
6. Six conductors of double circuit transmission line are arranged
as shown. the conductor used is OSTRICH. Find the capacitive
reactance to neutral and the charging current per km per phase at
132KV and 60Hz, assuming that the line is regularly transposed.
Neglect the effect of earth.
ASSIGNMENT NO. 2
1. A three phase 60Hz DOVE TL has its conductors arranged in a
triangular formation so that two of its conductors are 30 feet and
the third is 50 feet. Determine the capacitance to neutral and
capacitive to neutral in miles.
2. Determine the capacitance of the arrangement shown
a. if the effect of the earth is neglected
b. If the effect of the earth is considered. The height of the
conductors is 10 meters from the ground and each has a radius
of 5cm
Voltage and Current relations on
Transmission Lines
The transmission lines are categorized as three types
1) Short transmission line– the line length is up to 80 km and the
operating voltage is < 20 kV.
2) Medium transmission line– the line length is between 80 km to 160
km and the operating voltage is > 20 kV and < 100kV
3) Long transmission line – the line length is more than 160 km and
the operating voltage is > 100 kV
Whatever may be the category of transmission line, the main aim is to
transmit power from one end to another. Like other electrical system,
the transmission network also will have some power loss and voltage
drop during transmitting power from sending end to receiving end.
Due to smaller distance and lower line voltage, the capacitance
effect are extremely small and can be neglected. Its performance
depends on the resistance and inductance of the line.. Through in
an actual line, the resistance and inductance are distributed over
the whole length but in case of short lines, the total resistance and
inductance are assumed to be lumped at one place.
For short length, the shunt capacitance of this type of line is
neglected and other parameters like electrical resistance and
inductor of these short lines are lumped, hence the equivalent
circuit is represented as given in the next slide.
For convenience, it is considered that the parameters of the conductors are
lumped into one conductor, and the return conductor is assumed to have no
resistance and inductive reactance.
The sending end voltage
Vs = VR + IsZL
Sending power factor
pfs = cos (θIS - θVS)
Sending power
Ps = VsIspfs
= PR + PLOSS
PLOSS = I2sZLINE
Voltage regulation = Vs – VR / VR
The lower the voltage regulation, the better it is because little
variation in receiving end voltage due to the variation in load
current.
Regulation is defined as the change in voltage at the receiving end
(load) when the full load is thrown off, the sending end (supply)
frequency remaining unchanged.
Eff = PR / PR + PLOSS (line losses)
Where PR = VRIRcos θR
Using the phasor diagram with IR as the reference point
EXAMPLE NO. 4
1. A 10 mile, 60hz single phase TL using DOVE conductor equilaterally
spaced with 5 feet spacing between centers. It delivers 2500KW at
13.8KV to a balance load.
a. Determine the per phase impedance of the line
b. What must be the sending end voltage when the power factor is 0.866
lagging, Unity power factor and 0.9 leading
c. Determine the percent regulation of the line at different power factor
d. Transmission efficiency
e. Draw the phasor diagram depicting the operation of the line in each
case.
Assume wire temperature to be 50oC
2. A single phase line is transmitting 1100KW power to a factory at
11KV and at 0.8 lagging. It has a total resistance of 2Ω and a
reactance of 3Ω. Determine the voltage at the sending end,
percentage regulation and efficiency.
Three phase short TL:
The assumption on short 3 phase TL are
1. System is Y connected
2. Transmission is balance
3. Per phase basis
Sending power, Ps = √3 VsIspfs
Or Ps = 3 VSN Is pfs
Receiving power = √3 VR IR pfR
Or PR = 3 VRN IR pfR
For Y connected, Is = IR
VSN = Vs/ √3
VSN = sending end to neutral
VRN = receiving end to neutral
PLOSS = 3IS2 R
3. A 20 mile, three phase transmission line is composed of
336.4MCM, 26/7 ACSR strand. The conductor are spaced
horizontally with 3 ft between adjacent conductor. It is supplying a
balanced load of 4000KW at 13.8KV with 0.866 lagging power factor
at 60HZ
a. Calculate the sending end voltage and the power factor
b. Voltage regulation of the line
c. Efficiency of the TL
d. If a capacitor bank is connected in parallel with the load that
draws a line current of 120A, calculate the sending end voltage
and the sending end power factor.
Medium length transmission lines
Using the circuit constant
VS = A V R + B I R
IS = C V R + D I R

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