COORDINATION

DR. SHWE PHYU AUNG

M.B.,B.S, M.MED.SC (MICROBIOLOGY)
STIMULUS AND RESPONSE
• Suppose you are walking along when you see a football coming at high
speed towards your head.

• If your nerves are working properly, you will probably move or duck
quickly to avoid contact.

• Imagine another situation where you are very hungry, and you smell food
cooking.

• Your mouth might begin to 'water', in other words secrete saliva.

• Each of these situations is an example of a stimulus and a
response.

• A stimulus is a change in an animal's surroundings, and a

response is a reaction to that change.

• In the first example, the approaching ball was the stimulus, and
your movement to avoid it hitting you was the response.

• The change in your environment was detected by your eyes,

which are an example of a receptor organ.
• The response was brought about by contraction of muscles, which are a
type of effector organ (they produce an effect).

• The nervous system links the two, and is an example of a coordination

system.

• A summary of the sequence of events is

• stimulus → receptor → coordination → effector → response

• In the second example, the receptor for the smell of food was the nose,
and the response was the secretion of saliva from glands.

• Glands secrete (release) chemical substances, and they are the second
type of effector organ.

• Again, the link between the stimulus and the response is the nervous
system.

• The information in the nerve cells is transmitted in the form of tiny

electrical signals called nerve impulses.
KEY POINT
• The surroundings outside the body are called the external environment.

• The inside of the body is known as the internal environment.

• The body also responds to changes in its internal environment, such as

temperature and blood glucose levels.
RECEPTORS
• The role of any receptor is to detect the stimulus by changing its energy
into the electrical energy of the nerve impulses.

• For example, the eye converts light energy into nerve impulses, and the
ear converts sound energy into nerve impulses (Table 6.1).
• Notice how a 'sense' like touch is made up of several components.

• When we touch a warm surface we will be stimulating several types of

receptor, including touch and temperature receptors, as well as stretch
receptors in the muscles.

• As well as this, each sense detects different aspects of the energy it receives.

• For example, the ears don't just detect sounds, but different loudness and
frequencies of sound, while the eye not only forms an image, but also detects
brightness of light and in humans can tell the difference between different light
wavelengths (colours).

• Senses tell us a great deal about changes in our environment.

DID YOU KNOW?
• Some animals can detect
changes in their environment that
are not sensed by humans.

• Insects such as bees can see

ultraviolet (UV) light.

• The wavelengths of UV are

invisible to humans (Figure 6.1).
• Some organisms can even detect the direction of magnetic fields.

• Many birds, such as pigeons, have a built-in compass in their brain,

which they use for navigation.

• A species of bacterium can also do this, but as yet no one can explain
why this might be an advantage to it!
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• The biological name for a nerve cell is a neurone.

• The impulses that travel along a neurone are not an electric current, as
in a wire.

• They are caused by movements of charged particles (ions) in and out of

the neurone.

• Impulses travel at speeds between about 10 and 100 metres per

second, which is much slower than an electric current, but fast enough
to produce a rapid response
• Impulses from receptors pass along
nerves containing sensory
neurones, until they reach the brain
and spinal cord.

• These two organs (brain and spinal

cord) are together known as the
central nervous system, or CNS
{Figure 6.2).
• Other nerves contain motor neurones, transmitting impulses to the
muscles and glands.

• Some nerves contain only sensory or motor cells, while other nerves
contain both - they are 'mixed'.

• A typical nerve contains thousands of individual neurones.

DID YOU KNOW?
• The CNS is well protected by the skeleton.

• The brain is inside the skull or cranium (nerves connected to the brain
are cranial nerves) and the spinal cord runs down the middle of the
spinal column, passing through a hole in each vertebra.

• Nerves connected to the spinal cord are called spinal nerves.

 THE STRUCTURE OF NEURONES

• Both sensory and motor neurones can be very long.

• For example, a motor neurone leading from the CNS

to the muscles in the finger has a fibre about a metre
in length, which is 100000 times the length of the cell
body (Figure 6.3).
• The cell body of a motor neurone is
at one end of the fibre, in the CNS.

• The cell body has fine cytoplasmic

extensions, called dendrons.

• These in turn form finer extensions,

called dendrites.
• There can be junctions with other
neurones on any part of the cell
body, dendrons or dendrites.

• These junctions are called

synapses.

• Later in this chapter we will deal

with the importance of synapses
in nerve pathways
• One of the extensions from the motor neurone cell body is much longer
than the other dendrons.

• This is the fibre that carries impulses to the effector organ, and is called
the axon.

• At the end of the axon furthest from the cell body, it divides into many
nerve endings.
• These fine branches of the axon
connect with a muscle at a special sort
of synapse called a neuromuscular
junction.

• In this way impulses are carried from

the CNS out to the muscle.

• The signals from nerve impulses are

transmitted across the neuromuscular
junction, causing the muscle fibres to
contract.
• The axon is covered by a sheath made
of a fatty material called myelin.

• The myelin sheath insulates the axon,

preventing 'short circuits' with other
axons, and also speeds up the
conduction of the impulses.

• The sheath is formed by the

membranes of special cells that wrap
themselves around the axon as it
develops.
• A sensory neurone has a similar
structure to the motor neurone, but the
cell body is located on a side branch of
the fibre, just outside the CNS.

• The fibre from the sensory receptor to

the cell body is actually a dendron,
while the fibre from the cell body to the
CNS is a short axon.

• As with motor neurones, fibres of

sensory neurones are often myelinated.
THE EYE
• Many animals have eyes, but few show the complexity of the human eye.

• Simpler animals, such as snails, use their eyes to detect light but cannot
form a proper image.

• Other animals, such as dogs, can form images but cannot distinguish
colours.

• The human eye does all three.

• Of course it is not really the eye that
'sees' anything at all, but the brain that
interprets the impulses from the eye.

• To find out how light from an object is

converted into impulses representing an
image, we need to look at the structure
of this complex organ (Figure 6.4).

• https://youtu.be/FNzh_5cTlMY
• The tough outer coat of the eye is
called the sclera, which is the
visible, white part of the eye.

• At the front of the eye the sclera

becomes a transparent 'window'
called the cornea, which lets light
into the eye.
• Behind the cornea is the coloured
ring of tissue called the iris.

• In the middle of the iris is a hole

called the pupil, which lets the light
through.

• It is black because there is no light

escaping from the inside of the eye.
• Underneath the sclera is a dark
layer called the choroid.

• It is dark because it contains

many pigment cells, as well as
blood vessels.

• The pigment stops light being

reflected around inside the eye.
• The innermost layer of the back of the eye is
the retina.

• This is the light sensitive layer, the place

where light energy is converted into the
electrical energy of nerve impulses.

• The retina contains receptor cells called

rods and cones.

• These cells react to light, producing

impulses in sensory neurones.

• The sensory neurones then pass the

impulses to the brain through the optic nerve
• Rod cells work well in dim light, but they cannot distinguish between different
colours, so the brain 'sees' an image produced by the rods in black and white.

• This is why we can't see colours very well in dim light: only our rods are
working properly.

• The cones, on the other hand, will only work in bright light, and there are three
types which respond to different wavelengths or colours of light - red, green
and blue.
• We can see all the colours of visible light as a result of these three types of cones
being stimulated to different degrees.

• For example, if red, green and blue are stimulated equally, we see white.

• Both rods and cones are found throughout the retina, but cones are particularly
concentrated at the centre of the retina, in an area called the fovea.

• Cones give a sharper image than rods, which is why we can only see objects
clearly if we are looking directly at them, so that the image falls on the fovea.
DID YOU KNOW?

• The fact that the inverted image is seen the right way up by the brain makes the point that
it is the brain which 'sees' things, not the eye.

• An interesting experiment was carried out to test this.

• Volunteers were made to wear special inverting goggles for long periods.

• These turned the view of their surroundings upside down.

• At first this completely disorientated them, and they found it difficult to make even simple
coordinated movements.

• However, after a while their brains adapted, until the view through the goggles looked
normal.

• In fact, when the volunteers removed the goggles, the world then looked upside down
FORMING AN IMAGE
• To form an image on the retina, light
needs to be bent or refracted.

• Refraction takes place when light passes

from one medium to another of a different
density.

• In the eye, this happens first at the

air/cornea boundary, and again at the
lens (Figure 6.5).
• In fact the cornea acts as the first
lens of the eye.

• As a result of refraction at the

cornea and lens, the image on the
retina is inverted (upside down}.

• The brain interprets the image the

right way up.
THE IRIS REFLEX

• The role of the iris is to control the

amount of light entering the eye, by
changing the size of the pupil.

• The iris contains two types of muscles.

• Circular muscles form a ring shape in

the iris, and radial muscles lie like the
spokes of a wheel.
• In bright light, the pupil is constricted
(made smaller).

• This happens because the circular

muscles contract and the radial
muscles relax.

• In dim light, the opposite happens.

• The radial muscles contract and the

circular muscles relax, dilating
(widening) the pupil (Figure 6.6).
• Whenever our eyes look from a dim light to a bright one, the iris rapidly
and automatically adjusts the pupil size.

• This is an example of a reflex action.

• You will find out more about reflexes later in this chapter.

• The purpose of the iris reflex is to allow the right intensity (brightness) of
light to fall on the retina.
• Light that is too bright could damage the rods and cones, and light that is
too dim would not form an image.

• The intensity of light hitting the retina is the stimulus for this reflex.

• Impulses pass to the brain through the optic nerve, and straight back to
the iris muscles, adjusting the diameter of the pupil.

• It all happens without the need for conscious thought - in fact we are not
even aware of it happening.
In the iris reflex, the route from stimulus to response is this:
stimulus (light intensity)
↓
retina (receptor)
↓
sensory neurones in optic nerve
↓
unconscious part of brain
↓
motor neurones in nerve to iris
↓
iris muscles (effector)
↓
response (change in size of pupil)
THE BLIND SPOT

• There is one area of the retina where an image cannot be formed; this is
where the optic nerve leaves the eye.

• At this position there are no rods or cones, so it is called the blind spot.

• The retina of each eye has a blind spot, but they are not a problem,
because the brain puts the images from each eye together, cancelling out
the blind spots of both eyes.

• As well as this, the optic nerve leaves the eye towards the edge of the
retina, where vision is not very sharp anyway.
• To 'see' your own blind spot you can do a simple experiment. Cover or
close your right eye.

• Hold this page about 30 cm from your eyes and look at the black dot
below.

• Now, without moving the book or turning your head, read the numbers
from left to right by moving your left eye slowly towards the right.
• You should find that when the image of the dot falls on the blind spot it
disappears.

• If you try doing this with both eyes open, the image of the dot will not
disappear.
DID YOU KNOW?

• A way to prove to yourself that the eyes form two overlapping images is
to try the 'sausage test'.

• Focus your eyes on a distant object.

• Place your two index fingers tip to tip, and bring them up in front of your
eyes, about 30 cm from your face, while still focusing at a distance.

• You should see a finger 'sausage' between the two fingers.

• Now try this with one eye closed.

• What is the difference?

ACCOMMODATION
• The changes that take place in the eye which allow us to see objects at
different distances are called accommodation.

• You have probably seen the results of a camera or projector not being in
focus - a blurred picture.

• In a camera, we can focus light from objects that are different distances
away by moving the lens backwards or forwards, until the picture is
sharp
• In the eye, a different method is used.

• Rather than altering its position, the shape of the lens can be changed.

• A lens that is fatter in the middle (more convex) will refract light rays
more than a thinner (less convex) lens.

• The lens in the eye can change shape because it is made of cells
containing an elastic crystalline protein.
• Figure 6.4 shows that the lens is held in place by a series of fibres called
the suspensory ligaments.

• These are attached like the spokes of a wheel to a ring of muscle, called
the ciliary muscle.

• The inside of the eye is filled with a transparent watery fluid which
pushes outwards on the eye.

• In other words, there is a slight positive pressure within the eye.

• The changes to the eye that take place during accommodation are
shown in Figure 6.7.
• When the eye is focused on a distant object, the rays of light from the
object are almost parallel when they reach the cornea (Figure 6. 7(a)).

• The cornea refracts the rays, but the lens does not need to refract them
much more to focus the light on the retina, so it does not need to be very
convex.

• The ciliary muscles relax and the pressure in the eye pushes outwards
on the lens, flattening it and stretching the suspensory ligaments.

• This is the condition when the eye is at rest - our eyes are focused for
long distances.
• When we focus on a nearby object, for example when reading a book,
the light rays from the object are spreading out (diverging) when they
enter the eye (Figure 6. 7(b)).

• In this situation, the lens has to be more convex in order to refract the
rays enough to focus them on the retina.

• The ciliary muscles now contract, the suspensory ligaments become

slack and the elastic lens bulges outwards into a more convex shape.
REFLEX ACTIONS
• You saw on page 89 that the dilation and constriction of the pupil by the
iris is an example of a reflex action.

• You now need to understand a little more about the nerves involved in a
reflex.

• The nerve pathway of a reflex is called the reflex arc.

• The 'arc' part means that the pathway goes into the CNS and then
straight back out again, in a sort of curve or arc (Figure 6.8).
• The iris-pupil reflex protects the eye against damage by bright light.

• Other reflexes are protective too, preventing serious harm to the body.

• Take, for example, the reflex response to a painful stimulus.

• This happens when part of your body, such as your hand, touches a
sharp or hot object.

• The reflex results in your hand being quickly withdrawn.

• Figure 6.9 shows the nerve pathway of this reflex in more detail.
• The stimulus is detected by temperature or pain receptors in the skin.

• These generate impulses in sensory neurones.

• The impulses enter the CNS through a part of the spinal nerve called the dorsal
root.

• In the spinal cord the sensory neurones connect by synapses with short relay
neurones, which in turn connect with motor neurones.

• The motor neurones emerge from the spinal cord through the ventral root, and
send impulses back out to the muscles of the arm.

• These muscles then contract, pulling the arm (and thus finger) away from the
harmful stimulus
KEY POINT
• A reflex action is a rapid, automatic (or involuntary) response to a
stimulus.

• The action often (but not always) protects the body.

• 'Involuntary' means that it is not started by impulses from the brain.

• The middle part of the spinal cord consists
mainly of nerve cell bodies, which gives it a
grey colour.

• This is why it is known as grey matter.

• The outer part of the spinal cord is called

white matter, and has a whiter appearance
because it contains many axons with their
fatty myelin sheaths.

• (In the brain this is reversed - the grey

matter is on the outside and the white
matter in the middle of the brain.)
• Impulses travel through the reflex arc in a fraction of a second, so that the
reflex action is very fast, and doesn't need to be started by impulses from
the brain.

• However, this doesn't mean that the brain is unaware of what is going on.

• This is because in the spinal cord, the reflex arc neurones also form
connections called synapses with nerve cells leading to and from the brain.

• The brain therefore receives information about the stimulus.

• This is how we feel the pain.

• Movements are sometimes a result of reflex actions, but we can also
contract our muscles as a voluntary action, using nerve cell pathways
from the brain linked to the same motor neurones.

• A voluntary action is under conscious control.

 DID YOU KNOW?
• 'Dorsal' and 'ventral' are words describing the back
and front of the body.

• The dorsal roots of spinal nerves emerge from the

spinal cord towards the back of the person, while
the ventral roots emerge towards the front.

• Notice that the cell bodies of the sensory neurones

are all located in a swelling in the dorsal root, called
the dorsal root ganglion.
Synapses
• Synapses are critical to the
working of the nervous system.

• The CNS is made of many billions

of nerve cells, and these have
links with many others, through
synapses.
• In the brain, each neurone may form synapses with thousands of other
neurones.

• It is estimated that there are between 100 and 1000 million million
synapses in the CNS.

• Since impulses can take different routes through these, there is an

almost infinite number of possible pathways through the system.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oi9BTpzsOns
• A synapse is actually a gap between two
nerve cells.

• The gap is not crossed by the electrical

impulses passing through the neurones, but
by chemicals.

• Impulses arriving at a synapse cause the

ends of the fine branches of the axon to
secrete a chemical, called a neurotransmitter.
• This chemical diffuses across the gap and attaches to the membrane of
the second neurone.

• It then starts off impulses in the second cell (Figure 6. 10).

• After the neurotransmitter has 'passed on the message', it is broken

down by an enzyme

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p5zFgT4aofA
• Remember that many nerve cells, particularly those in the brain, have
thousands of synapses with other neurones.

• The output of one cell may depend on the inputs from many cells
adding together. In this way, synapses are important for integrating
information in the CNS (Figure 6.11 ).
• Because synapses are crossed
by chemicals, it is easy for other
chemicals to interfere with the
working of the synapse.

• They may imitate the

neurotransmitter, or block its
action.

• This is the way that many drugs

work.
LOOKING AHEAD - WHAT IS A NERVE
IMPULSE?
• A nerve impulse is an electrical signal that travels along the axon of a
nerve cell.

• When the cell is not transmitting an impulse, there is small potential

difference (voltage) across the nerve cell membrane.

• The potential inside the axon is about -70 mV lower than outside.

• This 'resting potential' is caused by differences in concentrations of

various ions inside and outside the cell.
• When the cell is stimulated, sodium ions
(Na+) rush into the axon through the
membrane.

• The inflow of positively charged ions Figure 6.12 Nerve cell action potential.

causes the potential to become positive -

we say that it is depolarised.

• This sudden switch in voltage is called an

'action potential'.

• It only lasts for a few milliseconds (Figure

6.12).
• After a brief 'overshoot' below -70 mV it returns to normal (repolarised),
as other positive ions (potassium, K+) pass out through the membrane.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bfokof2YMVU&t=173s
• A nerve impulse is a propagated action potential.

• The action potential stimulates the next part of the cell membrane, so
that the depolarisation spreads along the axon.

• After the action potential has passed, ion exchange pumps in the
membrane sort out the imbalance of Na+ and K+ ions.

• The pumps use ATP for active transport - this is one reason why nerve
cells need a lot of metabolic energy from respiration.
• Nerve cells are called 'excitable cells' because they can change their
membrane potential in this way.

• Other excitable cells include muscle and receptor cells.

• If you continue to study biology beyond International GCSE you will

probably learn more about this interesting topic.
Chemical Coordination
GLANDS AND HORMONES
• A gland is an organ that releases or secretes a substance.

• This means that cells in the gland make a chemical which leaves the
cells through the cell membrane.

• The chemical then travels somewhere else in the body, where it carries
out its function.
• There are two types of glands - exocrine and endocrine glands.

• Exocrine glands secrete their products through a tube called a duct.

• For example, salivary glands in your mouth secrete saliva down salivary
ducts, and tear glands secrete tears through ducts that lead to the
surface of the eye.

• Endocrine glands have no duct, and so are called ductless glands.

• Instead, their products, the hormones, are secreted into the blood
vessels that pass through the gland (Figure 7.1).
• This chapter looks at some of the main
endocrine glands and the functions of
the hormones they produce.

• Because hormones are carried in the

blood, they can travel to all areas of the
body.

• They usually only affect certain tissues

or organs, called 'target organs', which
can be a long distance from the gland
that made the hormone.
• Hormones only affect particular
tissues or organs if the cells of that
tissue or organ have special chemical
receptors for the particular hormone.

• For example, the hormone insulin

affects the cells of the liver, which
have insulin receptors.
KEY POINT
• The receptors for some hormones are located in the cell membrane of
the target cell.

• Other hormones have receptors in the cytoplasm, and some in the

nucleus.

• Without specific receptors, a cell will not respond to a hormone at all.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NERVOUS AND ENDOCRINE
CONTROL
Nervous system Endocrine system

woks by nerve impulses transmitted through works by hormones transmitted through the
nerve cells (although bloodstream
chemicals are used at synapses)

nerve impulses travel fast and usually have an hormones travel more slowly and generally take
'instant' effect longer to act

response is usually short-lived response is usually longer-lasting

impulses act on individual cells such as muscle hormones can have widespread effects on
fibres, so have a very localised effect different organs (although they only act on
particular tissues or organs if the cells have the
correct receptors)
THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• The positions of the main
endocrine glands are shown in
Figure 7.2.

• A summary of some of the

hormones that they make and
their functions is given in Table

7.2.
• The pituitary gland (often just called 'the pituitary') is found at the base of
the brain.

• It produces a number of hormones, including antidiuretic hormone

(ADH), which acts on the kidneys, controlling the amount of water in the
blood.

• The pituitary also releases hormones that regulate reproduction.

• Just above the pituitary is a part of the brain called the hypothalamus.

• The pituitary contains neurones linking it to the hypothalamus, and

some of its hormones are produced under the control of the brain.
Table 7.2: Some of the main endocrine glands, the hormones they produce and
their functions.
Gland Hormone Some functions of Hormones

pituitary follicle stimulating hormone • stimulates egg development and oestrogen / secretion in females
(FSH) and sperm production in males
luteinising hormone (LH) • stimulates egg release (ovulation) in females and testosterone
antidiuretic hormone (AOH) production in males
• controls the water content of the blood

thyroid thyroxine controls the body's metabolic rate (how last chemical reactions take
place in cells)
pancreas insulin lowers blood glucose
glucagon raises blood glucose
adrenals adrenaline prepares the body for physical activity
testes testosterone controls the development of male secondary sexual characteristics
ovaries oestrogen controls the development of female secondary sexual characteristics
progesterone regulates the menstrual cycle
• The pancreas is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland.

• It secretes two hormones involved in the regulation of blood glucose,

and is also a gland of the digestive system, secreting enzymes through
the pancreatic duct into the small intestine.

• The sex organs of males (testes) and females (ovaries) are also
endocrine organs.

• In addition to their role in producing sex cells, the testes and ovaries
make hormones that are involved in controlling reproduction.
KEY POINT
• The pituitary is a link between the nervous and endocrine coordination
systems.
 ADRENALINE - THE 'FIGHT OR FLIGHT' HORMONE

• When you are frightened, excited or angry, your adrenal glands secrete the
hormone adrenaline.

• Adrenaline acts at a number of target organs and tissues, preparing the body
for action.

• In animals other than humans this action usually means dealing with an attack
by an enemy, where the animal can stay and fight or run away - hence 'fight or
flight'.
• This is not often a problem with
humans, but there are plenty of
other times when adrenaline is
released (Figure 7.3).
DID YOU KNOW?
• 'Adrenal' means 'next to the kidneys', which describes where
the adrenal glands are located - on top of these organs (see
Figure 7.2).
• If an animal's body is going to be
prepared for action, the muscles
need a good supply of oxygen and
glucose for respiration.

• Adrenaline produces several

changes in the body that make this
happen (Figure 7.4) as well as other
changes to prepare for fight or
flight.
The breathing rate increases and
breaths become deeper, taking
more oxygen into the body.

The heart beats faster, sending

more blood to the muscles, so
that they receive more glucose
and oxygen for respiration.

Blood is diverted away from the

intestine and into the muscles.
In the liver, stored carbohydrate (glycogen) is changed into glucose and
released into the blood.

The muscle cells absorb more glucose and use it for respiration.

The pupils dilate, increasing visual sensitivity to movement.

Body hair stands upright, making the animal look larger to an enemy.

Mental awareness is increased, so reactions are faster.

• In humans, adrenaline is not just released in a 'fight or flight' situation,
but in many other stressful activities too, such as preparing for a race,
going for a job interview or taking an exam.
INSULIN - CONTROL OF BLOOD GLUCOSE

• You saw earlier that adrenaline can raise blood glucose from stores in
the liver.

• The liver cells contain carbohydrate in the form of glycogen.

• Glycogen is made from long chains of glucose sub-units joined together,

forming a large insoluble molecule.
• Being insoluble makes glycogen a good storage product.

• When the body is short of glucose, the glycogen can be broken down
into glucose, which then passes into the bloodstream.
• Adrenaline raises blood glucose concentration in an emergency, but
other hormones act all the time to control the level, keeping it fairly
constant at a little less than 1 g of glucose in every dm3 (cubic
decimetre) of blood.

• The main hormone controlling glucose is insulin.

• Insulin is made by special cells in the pancreas.

• It stimulates the liver cells to take up glucose and convert it into

glycogen, lowering the level of glucose in the blood.
• The concentration of glucose in your blood will start to rise after you
have had a meal.

• Sugars from digested carbohydrate pass into the blood and are carried
to the liver in the hepatic portal vein.

• In the liver the glucose is converted to glycogen, so the blood leaving the
liver in the hepatic vein has a lower concentration of glucose than when
it enters the liver.
DID YOU KNOW?
• The pancreas also makes a hormone called glucagon, which
has the opposite effect to insulin - it raises blood glucose.
• Some people have a disease where their pancreas cannot make
enough insulin to keep their blood glucose level constant - it rises to
very high concentrations.

• The disease is called diabetes.

• One symptom of diabetes can be detected by a chemical test on

urine.

• Normally, people have no glucose at all in their urine.

• Someone suffering from diabetes may have such a high

concentration of glucose in the blood that it is excreted in their
urine.

• This can be shown up by using coloured test strips (Figure 7.5).

KEY POINT
• We should really refer to this disease by its full name, which is 'type 1' diabetes.

• There is also a 'type 2' diabetes, where the pancreas produces insulin but the body shows
insulin resistance, where insulin has less effect than it should do.

• At first the pancreas makes extra insulin, but eventually it can't continue to make enough
to maintain blood glucose at a nomnal level.

• Type 2 diabetes is common in people who are overweight and eat a poor diet that is high
in sugar and other carbohydrates.

• It can be prevented and controlled by eating a good diet and doing regular exercise.

• Type 2 diabetes also tends to happen in middle-aged or older people, whereas type 1 can
happen at any age, and is common in childhood.
• Another symptom of diabetes is a constant thirst.

• This is because the high blood glucose concentration stimulates

receptors in the hypothalamus of the brain.

• These 'thirst centres' are stimulated, so that by drinking, the person will
dilute their blood.

• Severe diabetes is very serious.

• If it is untreated, the sufferer loses weight and becomes weak and

eventually falls into a coma and dies.
• Carbohydrates in the diet, such as starch and sugars, are the source of
glucose in the blood, so a person with diabetes can help to control their
blood sugar if they limit the amount of carbohydrate that they eat.

• However a person with diabetes (type 1) also needs to receive daily

injections of insulin to keep the glucose in their blood at the right level.
• People with diabetes can check their blood glucose using a special
sensor.

• They prick their finger and place a drop of blood on a test strip.

• The strip is then put into the sensor, which gives them an accurate
reading of how much glucose is in their blood (Figure 7.6).

• They can then tell when to inject insulin and how much to inject.