8.

1 Types of Chemical Bonds

 Bonding Basics
Atoms will position themselves so that the system will
achieve the lowest possible energy.

•The distance where this energy is minimal is the bond

length (distance between 2 nuclei, usually in nm or pm).

•The energy required to break a bond is called the bond

energy (usually in kJ/mol).

•The shorter the bond length (the stronger the attraction

and the higher the bond energy.)
The bond length is the distance at which the system
has minimal energy
Practice
•Rank in order of increasing bond energy:

H—F , H—Br, H—Cl

 Answer
• With increase in atomic size from F to Br bond
length increases
• As the bond length increases the bond
energy decreases

In order of increasing bond energies.

H—Br H—Cl H—F

 Ionic Bonds
• An attraction between anions and cations
• Electrons are completely transferred.
• A bond between a metal and a nonmetal.
• Stronger than covalent bonds.
• Commonly called metallic salts.
Ions Formation
• Metal atoms tend to lose all valence electrons to
form cations. Cations are smaller than parent atom

• Nonmetal atoms tend to gain enough electrons to

fill the outer s and p subshells. Anions are larger
than parent atom

• Ionic Radius: ( see fig. 8.8 pg. 364)

• Isoelectric ions- ions containing the same number of

electrons…the size decreases as the nuclear charge
increases.
Properties of Ionic compounds
• High MP & BP • The ions are in a
• Hard, not easily very strong
crushed CRYSTAL
• Conduct electricity LATTICE pattern.
when melted or
dissolved because
ions are freed up to
move.
Coulomb’s law can be used to calculate
the energy of an interaction between a pair
of ions. It can be used for both attractive
and repulsive forces.
Summary of Coulomb’s Law

• The strength of an ionic bond can be

determined by 2 factors:

– The charge of the ions, the higher the

numerical charge value the stronger the
attraction.
– The distance of the ions, the closer they are
the stronger the bond.
Covalent Bonds
• This type of bonding most occurs between
a nonmetal and a nonmetal, or between
metalloids and nonmetals.

• Lower MP & BP
• Tend to be volatile gases or liquids
• Softer substances and crush easily
• Poor conductors of electricity
 Just in case you forgot ….
• Electronegativity is the attraction an atom has for a
shared pair of electrons.
• Electronegativity increases across a row and up a
column
Ionization Energy

• The energy needed to remove one or

more electrons from a neutral atom to form
a positively charged ion.

• By definition, the first ionization energy of

an element is the energy needed to
remove the outermost, or highest energy,
electron from a neutral atom in the gas
phase.
Covalent Bonding
When two atoms have a small difference in their tendencies
to lose or gain electrons, we observe electron sharing and
covalent bonding.

•Differences in electronegativity can be used to

determine if the electrons are shared equally or
unequally.

•Often, instead of using a single line to indicate the

covalent bond, an arrow is used with the head pointing
toward the atom with the greater attraction for the
electrons.

H F
Types of Covalent Bonds
 Lattice Energy
• The energy required to break an ionic
bond into its gaseous foundational
elements:
Lattice energy increases as:
• Ionic size decreases
• Ionic charge increases

As the size of lattice energy increases, it becomes

difficult for ions to get separated from the ionic lattice
which gives more stability to the ionic solid.

Therefore, ionic solids do not convert into gaseous

state (sublime) at room temperature and they melt at
high temperatures
 8.8 Covalent Bond Energies
and Chemical Reactions

• Breaking bonds requires energy, and the

process is endothermic.

• Based on the type of atoms involved in the

bond, we can use existing tables to look up
the energy required to break the bond.

• The values will be in kJ/mol

(Bond Orders)
Relationships:
• Atomic radius will influence bond length, larger
atoms will have longer bond lengths.

• Bond length and bond energy are inverse, as

the bond length increases the bond energy
decreases.

• As the number of shared pairs of electrons

increases, bond length shortens and bond
energy increases.
 Calculating Δ H from bond energies
Energy required to Energy released
ΔH = break the bonds - when bond form
Solution
 8.10 Lewis Structures
• Lewis Dot Diagrams represent the number of
valence electrons present in an atom.
• Lewis structures are often used to indicate the
bonds in a covalent molecule.
• Lines are used to represent bonds
– 1 line = single bond,
– 2 lines = double bond
– 3 lines = triple bond
– 2 dots represent lone pairs of electrons
 Drawing Lewis Structures
1. Count the total number of valence electrons in the molecule. If you
divide this by 2, it will give you the # of bonds needed to draw the
structure.

2. Create a “skeleton” structure by connecting surrounding atoms to the

central atom. The central atom is the one that there is one of or the
least electronegative (generally the first element in the formula is the
central).

3. Place electrons between the central atom and surrounding atoms

so that it has an octet. (remember hydrogen only needs 2).

4. Complete octets on the outside atoms.

5. If you run out of electrons to complete the octets of the surrounding

atoms, then you must move electrons from the central atom to the
outside and create double or triple bonds between the central atom and
a surrounding atom.
 Practice
Draw a Lewis Structure for:
– A water molecule:
– Ammonia:
– Carbon dioxide:
– Methane:
– Ethane:
– Ammonium ion:
Answer to practice
8.11 EXCEPTIONS
TO THE OCTET
RULE
Hydrogen
• Only two electrons are required for H to
obtain a noble gas configuration like
He

• No double bonds on hydrogen

• Never put lone pairs on H in a lewis

structure.
Electron Deficient
•Means the central atom has less than 8 electrons
•The second row elements B and Be often have
fewer than 8 electrons around them in compounds and
as a result are highly reactive
•Boron is satisfied with 6 electrons
•Berillium is fine with 4 electrons

Boron Trifluoride BF3

Odd-Electron Molecules
• Molecules with odd numbers of electrons will result
in a Lewis structure with one unpaired electron.

• Nitrogen is a period 2 element and can be satisfied

with less than an octet.

• Nitrogen dioxide ………. 17 valence electrons

Expanded Octet
•Means that the central atom is sharing more than 8 electrons.

•Third Row and heavier elements can exceed the octet rule by
using their empty valence d orbitals.

•To make a Lewis dot for this type of molecule, satisfy the octet
rule and then any extra electrons should be placed on the
atoms that have available d-orbitals

Xenon tetrafluoride
XeF4
 Resonance
Resonance refers to when more than one
valid Lewis structure can exist for a molecule. The
actual structure lies somewhere in between the
two as an average.
• The formal charge of an atom in a
molecule is the hypothetical charge the
atom would have if we could redistribute the
electrons in the bonds evenly between the
atoms ignoring electronegativity.

•You can use formal charges to identify the

most reasonable Lewis structure for a given
molecule
 Easy way to calculate formal charge

Formal charge = FC
Valence electrons = VE
Bonded pairs = sticks
Nonbonded electrons= dots

FC = VE – (# of STICKS) - (# of DOTS)
Guidelines for determining best structure
• A molecular structure in which all formal charges are zero.

• The structure with the smallest nonzero formal charges.

• Lewis structures are preferable when adjacent formal

charges are zero or of the opposite sign.

• When we must choose among several Lewis structures

with similar distributions of formal charges, the structure
with the negative formal charges on the more
electronegative atoms is preferable.
Nitrous oxide, N2O, commonly known as laughing gas, is
used as an anesthetic in minor surgeries, such as the routine
extraction of wisdom teeth. Which is the likely structure for
nitrous oxide?
Answer
 Electron Configuration

It is a shorthand description of how electrons are

arranged around the nucleus of an atom.

 Electron configurations are important because

they help us predict chemical behavior. We can
predict whether two elements will react or not,
and if they react, we can also predict what kind
of reaction we are likely to have, as well as how
strong the reaction will be.
The Aufbau Principle:
When building up the electron configuration of
an atom, electrons are placed in orbitals,
subshells, and shells in order of increasing
energy
Pauli Exclusion Principle:
No atomic orbital can contain more than two
electrons and they must be opposite spin!
Hund’s Rule:
When an electron is added to a subshell, it will
always occupy an empty orbital if one is
available. They will only pair up if an empty
orbital is not available.
Bohr
Model n=
principle
energy
level

PEL

Each PEL can have

sublevels that hold
electrons in orbitals

S_
P___
D_____
F_______
 Square this
number to find
the total number
of orbitals
Aufbau Energy Levels
Orbital
Box
Diagram
It describes
the subshell
filling order,
or the order
can be
determined
by using the
periodic
table
Molecular
Shape
 Regents Chemistry Taught
Molecular Geometry

• The molecule’s structural name is always based on the

number of the atoms in the molecule.

• Basically, you pretend that the lone pairs of electrons

are not there, and then you name the molecule by only
considering the arrangement of the atoms.

• It was a simpler way of naming the structures.

2 atoms Linear
3 atoms Bent and Angular
4 atoms Trigonal planar
5 atoms Tetrahedral
 VSEPR (Electron Pair Arrangement)
• Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory
gives us another way to predict the SHAPE of a
covalently bonded molecule.(nonmetals)

• The basic idea is that valence electron pairs

around a central atom (BOTH bonded and
unbonded pairs) are arranged around the central
atom in a way that minimizes the repulsions of the
like charges.
 Steps to determining the VSEPR Shape
1.) Write the Lewis electron-dot formula

2.) Determine the number of “things” surrounding the

central atom…
* Double and triple bonds count as only one
* Lone electron pairs also count as one
3.) Determine the electron pair arrangement that
maximizes the distance between all of the things (put
the electron pairs as far apart as possible)

4.) Place the surrounding atoms on the bonds

5.) Name it!
 MUST MEMORIZE !
# of Shape Bond Angle Hybridization
Electron
Pairs
• VSEPR theory names
this a trigonal pyramidal

• Molecular Geometry
calls it a Trigonal Planar.
Molecular Polarity
8.3 Polarity
▪ Molecular dipoles occur due to the unequal
sharing of electrons between atoms in a
molecule. Those atoms that are more
electronegative pull the bonded electrons
closer to themselves.

▪ Even though the total charge on a molecule is

zero, the positive and negative charges are not
completely symmetrical in most molecules.

▪ These molecules are said to be polar because

they possess a permanent dipole.
Nonpolar Molecule
Nonpolar
• When atoms bond together to form molecules,
they share or give electrons.

• If the electrons are shared equally by the

atoms, then there is no resulting charge and
the molecule is nonpolar. 
 Dipoles & Polarity

Dipoles maybe symbolized by either Greek letter delta

(lowercase), δ , or arrows crossed at the positive end, or both.
 Polar or Nonpolar
A polar molecule is one in which one side, or end, of the
molecule has a slight positive charge and the other side,
or end, has a slight negative charge. This will occur
whenever the molecule is not completely symmetric.

A nonpolar molecule is one which is completely

symmetric and there is an equal distribution of charge

Symmetry has two components

–the geometric arrangement of the outer atoms
–whether or not they are all the same type of atom
 Determing Molecular Polarity

Draw the Lewis structure

• If there is no lone pair on the central and all of the
surrounding atoms are the same then the molecule
will be nonpolar.
• If there is a lone pair on the central atom it will be
polar even if all the other atoms are the same.

• If there are lone pairs around the central and

nonsymmetrical distribution of the surrounding
atoms the molecule is polar.
Hybridization of
Atomic Orbitals
 HYBRIDIZATION OF CARBON
• Carbon has 4 valence electrons
• Hybridizing (combining orbitals) allows carbon
to now have 4 equal energy bonding sites.
• This makes it more stable.
 Hybridization of Orbitals
● Mixing of atomic orbitals to make a new type of
orbital called a hybrid molecular orbital.

● The number of hybrid orbitals formed is the same

as the number of atomic orbitals that were mixed.

● The type of hybrid orbital formed depends on the

types of atomic orbitals mixed.

●  Hybridized orbitals are lower in energy compared to

nonhybridized orbitals.
Quick and Easy Method
for determining Hybrid Orbitals

• Count up the number of “things”

surrounding a central atom.

Number of Hybridization VSEPR

THINGS Shape
4 4…….sp3 Tetrahedral
3 3…….sp2 Trigonal planar
2 2…….sp Linear
 Sigma & Pi Bonds
Sigma bonds – basically all single bonds in a
molecule

Pi bonds – one of the electron pairs in a

multiple bond is a sigma bond, the rest are pi
bonds.
Formation of a sigma bond
Formation of a pi bond