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APPLIED MODERN
PHYSICS
BY INSTRUCTOR SOLOMON H.(BSC, MSC)
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Outlines o Schrödinger’s Equation: Time-dependent

Form
Introduction
o Schrödinger’s Equation: Steady-state Form
 Quantum Mechanics  Eigenvalues and Eigen functions
o Wave Function (ψ)  Operators and Eigenvalues

o Normalization  Particle in a Box

o Well-Behaved Wave Functions Harmonic Oscillator

o Energy Levels
 The Wave Equation o Wave Functions
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Introduction
As it has been discussed under atomic structure the Bohr theory of atom has limitations.
First of all, it applies only to hydrogen and one-electron ions such as and it does not even work
for ordinary helium.
It cannot explain why certain spectral lines are more intense than others (that is, why certain
transitions between energy levels have greater probabilities of occurrence than others).
It cannot account for the observation that many spectral lines actually consist of several
separate lines whose wavelengths differ slightly.
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Introduction
It does not permit us to obtain what a really successful theory of the atom should make possible
understanding of how individual atoms interact with one another to endow macroscopic
aggregates of matter with the physical and chemical properties we observe.
Due to those limitations a more general approach to atomic phenomena which is called quantum
mechanics was developed in 1925 and 1926 by
o Erwin Schrödinger, WernerHeisenberg, Max Born, Paul Dirac, and others.
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Quantum Mechanics
Classical mechanics is an approximation of quantum mechanics
In classical mechanics, the future history of a particle is completely determined by its initial position
and momentum together with the forces that act upon it.
But in quantum mechanics the kind of certainty about the future characteristic of classical mechanics
is impossible because the initial state of a particle cannot be established with sufficient accuracy.
The more we know about the position of a particle now, the less we know about its momentum
and hence about its position later.
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Quantum Mechanics
The quantities whose relationships quantum mechanics explores are probabilities.
As the Bohr theory radius of the electron’s orbit in a ground state hydrogen
atom is always exactly .
But quantum mechanics states that this is the most probable radius.
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Wave Function (ψ)

It is the quantity with which quantum mechanics is concerned and has no physical interpretation.
The square of its absolute magnitude evaluated at a particular place at a particular time is
proportional to the probability of finding the body there at that time.
Wave functions are usually complex with both real and imaginary parts.
A probability, however, must be a positive real quantity.
The probability density for a complex ψ is therefore taken as the product of ψ and its complex
conjugate ψ* (ψψ*).
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Wave Function (ψ)

The complex conjugate of any function is obtained by replacing () by wherever it appears in the
function.
Every complex function ψ can be written in the form:
Wave function where A and B are real functions.
The complex conjugate ψ* of ψ is: Complex conjugate ψ* = A-iB.
 So =Ψ*Ψ = since .

Hence =Ψ*Ψ is always a positive real quantity, as required.

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Normalization
There are certain requirements that ψ must always fulfill before its actual calculation.
Such as:
1. Since is proportional to the probability density P of finding the body described by ψ, the
integral of over all space must be finite (the body is somewhere, after all).
2. If the particle does not exist and the integral obviously cannot be ∞.
3. cannot be negative or complex because of the way it is defined.
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Normalization
 It is usually convenient to have be equal to the probability density P of finding the particle described by
ψ, rather than merely be proportional to P.
 If is to equal to P, then it must be true that:Normalization:
since if the particle exists somewhere at all times,
 A wave function that obeys Eq. (5.1) is said to be normalized.
 Every acceptable wave function can be normalized by multiplying it by an appropriate constant; we shall
shortly see how this is done.
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Well-Behaved Wave Functions

They are the only admissible functions that 2. must be continuous and single-valued
represent the real bodies mathematically. everywhere.

Besides being normalizable, 3. ψ must be normalizable, which means that ψ

must go to 0 as in order that over all space be a
1. ψ must be continuous and single-valued finite constant.
everywhere; since P can have only one value
 These rules are not always obeyed by the wave
at a particular place and time. functions of particles in model situations that only
approximate actual ones.
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Well-Behaved Wave Functions  Given a normalized and otherwise acceptable

wave function ψ, the probability that the particle it
 For instance, the wave functions of a particle in a
describes will be found in a certain region is
box with infinitely hard walls do not have
simply the integral of the probability density over
continuous derivatives at the walls, since ψ = 0
that region.
outside the box .
 Thus for a particle restricted to motion in the x
 But in the real world, where walls are never
direction, the probability of finding it between and
infinitely hard, there is no sharp change in ψ at the
is given by
walls and the derivatives are continuous.
 Probability: (5.2)
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The Wave Equation

It can have a variety of solutions, including complex ones
 The wave equation which governs a wave whose variable quantity is y that propagates in the x direction
with the speed uis : Wave equation: (5.3)
In the case of a wave in a
o stretched string, y is the displacement of the string from the x axis (fig 5.1)
o sound, y is the pressure difference
o light, y is either the electric or the magnetic field magnitude.
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The Wave Equation  Whereas the solutions represent waves traveling in

the -x direction.
 Solutions of the wave equation may be of many
kinds.
 But all solutions must be of the form:
(5.4)
 where F is any function that can be differentiated.
 Figure 5.1 Waves in the xy plane traveling in the +x
 The solutions represent waves traveling in the +x
direction along a stretched string lying on the x
direction
axis.
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The Wave Equation harmonic waves in the +x direction, namely

(5.5)
 Let us consider the wave equivalent of a
 In this formula y is a complex quantity, with both
“freeparticle,” which is a particle that is not under
real and imaginary parts.
the influence of any forces and therefore pursues a
 Since ; eqn.(5.5) can be writtenas:
straight path at constant speed.
(5.6)
 This wave is described by the general solution of
 Only the real part of Eq. (5.6) which is the same as
Eq. (5.3) for Eq. (3.5)has significance in the case of waves in a
o undamped (constant amplitude A) and stretched string.
o monochromatic (constant angular frequency ω)
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The Wave Equation Solution

 The y represents the displacement of the string  The derivative of an exponential function is:
from its normal position (Fig. 5.1), and the
imaginary part of Eq. (5.6) is discarded as  The partial derivative of y with respect to x (which
irrelevant. means t is treated as a constant) from Eq. (5.5) is
therefore and the second partial derivative is
Example 5.1
Verify that Eq. (5.5) is a solution of the wave
equation.
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Solution
The partial derivative of with respect to (now holding constant) is:

The second partial derivative is :

Combining these results gives: which is Eq. (5.3).
Hence Eq. (5.5) is a solution of the wave equation.
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Schrödinger’s Equation (Time-dependent Form)

A basic physical principle that cannot be derived from anything else
For a particle moving freely in the +x direction wave function ψ is specified by

Replacing ω in the above formula by 2πvand u by λv gives: (5.8)

This is convenient since we already know what v and λ are in terms of the total energy E and
momentum p of the particle being described by ψ.
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Schrödinger’s Equation (Time-dependent Form)

Because of and , substituting these in eqn.(5.8) gives
(5.9)
 Equation (5.9) describes the wave equivalent of an unrestricted particle of total energy E and momentum
p moving in the +x direction
 The expression for the wave function ψ given by Eq. (5.9) is correct only for freely moving particles.
 To solve for a specific situation we must obtain the fundamental differential equation for ψ.
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Schrödinger’s Equation  Again differentiate Eq. (5.9) once with respect to t

gives
(Time-dependent Form)
 At speeds small compared with that of light, the total
 This equation, which is Schrödinger’s equation, energy E of a particle is the sum of its kinetic energy
can be arrived at in various ways, but it cannot be and its potential energy U:
rigorously derived from existing physical
(5.12)
principles.
 where U is in general a function of position x and time
 Differentiating Eq. (5.9) for ψ twice with respect to
t.
xgives (5.10)
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Schrödinger’s Equation (Time-dependent Form)

The function U represents the influence of the rest of the universe on the particle.
Of course, only a small part of the universe interacts with the particle to any extent
For instance, in the case of the electron in a hydrogen atom, only the electric field of the
nucleus must be taken into account.
Multiplying both sides of Eq. (5.12) by the wave function ψ gives
(5.13)
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Schrödinger’s Equation (Time-dependent Form) function of x, y, z, and t.
 Now we substitute for and from Eqs. (5.10)  Any restrictions that may be present on the
and (5.11) to obtain the time dependent form of particle’s motion will affect the potential energy
Schrödinger’s equation: function U.
 (5.14)  Once U is known, Schrödinger’s equation may be
 In 3D eqn. (5.14) becomes: solved for the wave function of the particle, from
which its probability density may be determined
(5.15)
for a specified x, y, z, t.
where the particle’s potential energy U is some
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Schrödinger’s Equation (Steady-state Form)  Evidently ψ is the product of a time-dependent
 In a great many situations the potential energy of a function () and a position dependent function .
particle does not depend on time explicitly.  Substituting the ψ of Eq. (5.16) into the time-dependent
 Hence, U vary with the position of the particle only. form of Schrödinger’s equation, we find that: and
dividing by common exponential factor gives:
 When this is true, Schrödinger’s equation may be
simplified by removing all reference to t. (1D)

 We begin by noting that the one-dimensional wave

function ψ of an unrestricted particle may be written as:

(5.16)
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Schrödinger’s Equation (Steady-state Form)  Thus energy quantization appears in wave mechanics as
a natural element of the theory
 Eqn. (5.17) is the steady-state form of Schrödinger’s
equation.  and energy quantization in the physical world is
revealed as a universal phenomenon characteristic of all
 In three dimensions it is:
stable systems.
(5.18)
 A familiar and quite close analogy to the manner in
 An important property of Schrödinger’s steady-state which energy quantization occurs in solutions of
equation is that, if it has one or more solutions for a Schrödinger’s equation is with standing waves in a
given system, each of these wave functions corresponds stretched string of length L that is fixed at both ends.
to a specific value of the energy E.
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Schrödinger’s Equation (Steady-state Form) well-behavedas and its derivatives that is, be
continuous, finite, and single-valued.
 Here, instead of a single wave propagating
indefinitely in one direction, waves are traveling in  In this case y must be real, not complex, as it
both the +x and -x directions simultaneously. represents a directly measurable quantity.

 These waves are subject to the condition (called a The only solutions of the wave equation, Eq. (5.3), that
boundary condition) that the displacement y always are in accord with these various limitations are those in
be zero at both ends of the string. which the wavelengths are given by:

 An acceptable function y(x, t) for the displacement as shown in Fig. 5.3.

must with its derivatives (except at the ends) be as
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Schrödinger’s Equation (Steady-state Form) Fig.5.2: Standing waves in a stretched string fastened at both ends.

It is the combination of the wave equation

and the restrictions placed on the nature of its
solution that leads us to conclude that y(x, t)
can exist only for certain wavelengths .
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Eigenvalues and Eigen-functions

The values of energy for which Schrödinger’s steady-state equation can be solved are called
eigenvalues
 The corresponding wave functions are called eigen-functions.
 These terms come from the German Eigen-wert, meaning “proper or characteristic value,”
and Eigen-funktion, “proper or characteristic function.”
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Operators and Eigen-values  When Eq. (5.19) holds for the wave functions of a
system, it is a fundamental postulate of quantum
 The condition that a certain dynamical variable
mechanics that any measurement of G can only
Gbe restricted to the discrete values in other
yield one of the values .
words, that Gbe quantized is that the wave
functions of the system be such that:  If measurements of G are made on a number of
identical systems all in states described by the
particular Eigen function, each measurement will
 Where is the operator that corresponds to G and yield the single value .
each is a real number.
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Example 5.3
An eigen-function of the operator is . Find the corresponding eigenvalue.
Solution
Here , so : (
ut , so
Hence from Eq. (5.19) we see that the eigenvalue G here is just G = 4.
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Particle In A Box
 How boundary conditions and normalization determine wave functions
 The simplest quantum-mechanical problem is that of a particle trapped in a box with infinitely hard walls.
 Consider the particle’s motion that is restricted to traveling along the x axis between x = 0 and x = L by
infinitely hard walls.
 A particle does not lose energy when it collides with such walls, so that its total energy stays constant.
 The potential energy U of the particle is infinite on both sides of the box while it is a constant say 0 for
convenience on the inside (Fig. 5.3).
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infinitely hard walls.
Particle In A Box
 Because the particle cannot have an infinite
amount of energy, it cannot exist outside the box,
and so its wave function ψ is 0 for x ≤ 0 and x ≥ L.
 Our task is to find what is within the box, namely,
between x = 0 and x = L.
 Within the box Schrödinger’s equation becomes

 Figure 5.3 A square potential well with infinitely high ,since U=0 there
barriers at each end corresponds to a box with
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 This solution is subject to the boundary conditions
Particle In A Box
that ψ = 0 for x = 0 and x = L.
 The total derivative is the same as the partial
 Since , the second term cannot describe the particle
derivative because is a function only of x in this
because it does not vanish at x = 0.
problem.
 Hence we conclude that .
 Equation (5.20) has the solution
 Since , the sine term always yields at x = 0, as
required.
 This can be verified by substitution back into Eq. (5.20).

 A and B are constants to be evaluated.

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Particle In A Box which gives:
 But will be 0 at only when  Particle in a box: (5.23)
 The wave functions of a particle in a box whose
energies are are, from Eq. (5.21) with
 sines of the angles π, 2π, 3π, . . . are all 0.
 From Eq. (5.22) it is clear that the energy of the
particle can have only certain values (eigenvalues)  Substituting Eq. (5.23) for gives:
 These eigenvalues, constituting the energy levels  (5.25)
of the system, are found by solving Eq. (5.22) for,
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Particle In A Box
 Eqn.(5.25) shows Eigen-functions corresponding to the
energy (eigenvalues) .
 The integral of is finite and can be verified by using the
trigonometric identity: as belows (since the particle is
confined within limits of to ).
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(5.26)
 For normalized form constant A can be solved by equating equation 5.26 to 1 as follows:
 (5.28)

The normalized of the particle are:

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Harmonic Oscillator system to its equilibrium configuration when it is

disturbed.
 Its energy levels are evenly spaced
 In the special case of simple harmonic motion, the
 Harmonic motion takes place when a system of
restoring force F on a particle of mass m is linear;
some kind vibrates about an equilibrium
 that is, F is proportional to the particle’s displacement
configuration.
xfrom its equilibrium position and in the opposite
 For example an object supported by a spring. direction.
 The condition for harmonic motion is the  Thus
presence of a restoring force that acts to return the
 From the second law of motion, F=ma.
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Harmonic Oscillator at the time and on the direction of motion then.

 The potential-energy function U(x) that corresponds to
 then,
a Hooke’s law force may be found by calculating the
 Harmonic Oscillator: (5.30) work needed to bring a particle from against such a
 The solution for eqn.(5.30) can be given as: force; the result is:

 (5.31)
 Where is the frequency of the oscillations and A is  The curve of U(x) versus x is a parabola (see Fig. 5.4. ).
their amplitude.
 The value of ϕ, the phase angle, depends upon what x is
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Harmonic Oscillator equilibrium position.

 If the energy of the oscillator is E, the particle
vibrates back and forth between
where are related by
The amplitude A of the motion is determined
by the total energy E of the oscillator, which
classically can have any value.
 Figure 5.4 The potential energy of a harmonic oscillator
is proportional to where x is the displacement from the
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Energy Levels  and

(5.35)
Schrödinger’s equation for the harmonic
 The solutions to eqn.5.34 that are acceptable here are
oscillator is, with becomes:
limited by the condition that ψ→0 as y→ ∞ in order
(5.33) that:
This can be written as:  Otherwise the wave function cannot represent an actual
particle.
 (5.34)
 Where y and α are dimensionless and are valued as
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Energy Levels steps of hv.

 At n = 0 the a harmonic oscillator in equilibrium with
 The mathematical properties of Eq. (5.34) are such that
its surroundings would approach an energy of E = and
this condition will be fulfilled only when
not E = 0.
 ., since (eq.5.35), the energy levels of a harmonic
 This is the lowest value the energy of the oscillator can
oscillator whose classical frequency of oscillation is v
have and it is called zero-point energy.
are given by the formula
 Energy levels of harmonic oscillator: It is given by: (5.37)
(5.36)
 The energy of a harmonic oscillator is thus quantized in
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Energy Levels Wave Functions

 Energy levels En is proportional to  For each of the parameter there is a different wave
function .
 (-1/ for hydrogen atom)
 Each function consists of a polynomial (called a
 ( for particle in a box) and
Hermite polynomial) in either odd or even powers of y,
 (n+1/2 for a harmonic oscillator). the exponential factor
 In each case the energy levels depend in a different way  And a numerical coefficient which is needed for to
on the quantum number n. meet the normalization condition is:
 Only for the harmonic oscillator are the levels equally spaced.
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Wave Functions
 The general formula for the wave function is:

 (5.38)

 The first six Hermite polynomials Hn(y) are listed in

Table 5.2.
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1. (x)= Ax2 between X=0 and X=2. Find

a) The probability density
b) The normalized wave function and value of A
2. A particle is located in one dimensional potential wall of width L with
absolutely impenetrable walls 0<X<L. Find probability of finding the
particle in the region L/3 <X <2L/3 in ground state