PROBLEM S O L V IN G &

REASONING
IN THE M OD ERN W ORL D
MATHEMATICS

G R . DAH LIA D . D E LEON-FERNANDEZ

EN
Problem Solving & Reasoning

 Problem solving has been an integral part of the mathematics curriculum that must be
taught alongside the various mathematical concepts and skills that are so necessary for
success in school and in real life afterwards.
 Most occupations require good problem-solving skills.
 This section aims at helping you become a better problem solver and to show that
problem solving can be an enjoyable experience.
What is a problem?

A problem is a situation that confronts the learner, that requires resolution, and for which the path
to the answer is not immediately known.

Problem vs Exercise
An exercise is a question that you know how to resolve immediately. Whether you get it right or not
depends on how expertly you apply specific techniques, but you don’t need to puzzle out what
techniques to use. In contrast, a problem demands much thought and resourcefulness before the
right approach is found.

Mathematical Problem Defined

A problem is a task for which:
 The person confronting it wants or needs to find a solution.
 The person has no readily available procedure for finding the solution.
 The person must make an attempt to find a solution.
Problem and Problem-Solving

 Problem can generally be defined as an obstacle, which remains perplexing until solved. People
often say, “I have a problem,” when they are faced with an unfamiliar or difficult situation and
there is no obvious way to find an answer.
 Problem solving is the process by which this new situation is analyzed and resolved. It begins
with an understanding of all the aspects of the problem and ends when a satisfactory answer
has been found.
 Problem solving is not just an exercise carried out in the classroom, but a skill that is used
continually in business and daily life.

Problem solving involves all of the steps in the problem process, including the discovery of the
problem, the decision to tackle the issue, understanding the problem, researching the available
options and taking actions to achieve your goals.
Heuristics
Heuristics are procedures or strategies that do not guarantee a solution to a problem but provide a
more highly probable method for discovering the solution to a problem.

Problem-solving Strategies or Heuristics

There are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is
best learned by solving many problems. You will find choosing a strategy increasingly easy. Here is a
partial list of problem solving strategies:

Working Backwards Solve a Simpler Problem

Guess and Check Act It Out
Make a Diagram Adopting a Different Point of View
Make a List Use Logical Reasoning
Look for a Pattern
Divide and Conquer
Polya’s Problem Solving Strategy
In his book (Polya, 1957) identifies the following four basic principles of problem solving:

1. Understanding the problem

2. Devising a plan
3. Carrying out the plan
4. Looking back

 Polya’s four steps appear simple. To become a good problem solver, it helps to examine
each of these steps and determine what is involved.
1. Understand the Problem
This seems so obvious that it is often not even mentioned, yet students are often
confused in their efforts to solve problems simply because they don’t understand it
fully, or even in part. To help you focus on understanding the problem, consider the
following questions.
 Do you understand all the words used in stating the problem?
 What are you asked to find or show? What are the data? What is the
condition?
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the
problem?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find a solution?
2. Devise a Plan
Polya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problems. The skill at
choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving many problems. You will find
choosing a strategy increasingly easy. In addition, consider the following suggestions.Find
the connection between the data and the unknown.

 Have you seen it before? Or have you seen the same problem in a slightly
different form?
 Do you know a related problem? Do you know a theorem that could be useful?
 Look at the unknown! Try to think of a familiar problem having the same or a similar
unknown.
 Here is a problem related to yours and solved before. Could you use it? Could you use
its result? Could you use its method?
 Should you introduce some auxiliary element in order to make its use possible?
3. Carry out the Plan
This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In general, all you need is care and patience, given
that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you have chosen. If it continues not to
work, discard it and choose another. Work carefully by checking each step. Can you see clearly that
the step is correct? Can you prove that it is correct?

4. Looking Back
Polya mentions that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back at what you have
done, what worked, and what didn’t. Doing this will enable you to predict what strategy to use to
solve future problems. In this stage, we examine the solution obtained. Follow the guide questions
below:
 Can you check the result? Can you check the argument?
 Can you derive the solution differently?
 Can you see it at a glance?
 Can you use the result, or the method, for some other problem?
Example 1:
In three bowling games, Lea scored 138, 141, and 144. What score will she need in a fourth game in order to have an average score
of 145 for all four games?
Solution:
 Understand the Problem
Lea scored 138, 141 and 144 in three games. The average score of the four games is 145. What should be the fourth
score?
 Devise a Plan
We can easily solve this by algebra. Let x be the required score.
 Carry out the Plan
Since the average score is 145, we have

The required score is 157.

 Look back
Computing the average of 138, 141, 144, and 157 yields to 145. Thus we get the correct answer.
Example 2:
25 81 411.
Find the units digit of 13 +4 + 5

Solution:
 Understand the Problem
Express the sum as a single whole number with no exponent and determine the digit in the one’s place.
 Devise a Plan
The given number is a huge number and we cannot see its unit digit directly using calculator. The
computation gets messy, if we do straightforward multiplication and addition. Thus, we look at simpler
cases and look for a pattern.
 Carry out the Plan
o The units digit of 1325 is 3 based on the following observation:
o It is easy to see that the units digit of 42k is 6 and the units digit
of 42k+1 is 1, for any nonnegative integer k. Hence, the units digit of 481 is 4.
o The units digit of 5411 is 5 since the units digit of 5n is 5 for any positive integer n.
o Therefore the units digit of 1325 + 481 + 5411 is the unit digit 3 + 4 + 5 = 12,
which is 2.
 Look back
The solution follows a careful analysis and a step-by-step approach. So we are assured that the answer
is correct. One can also verify this solution using modular arithmetic.
Example 3:
Ryan numbered his miniature race car collection according to the following rules:
a. It has to be a 3-digit number.
b. The digit in the hundreds place is less than 3.
c. The digit in the tens place is greater than 7.
d. The digit in the ones place is odd.

If Ryan used every possibility and each car had a different number, how many cars did Ryan have in his collection?

 Understand the Problem

o How many digits are there in the numbers?(3)
o What digits could be in the hundreds place? (1 or 2) Tens place? (8 or 9) Ones place? (1, 3, 5, 7, or 9)
 Devise a Plan
o If 1 is in the hundreds place, what digits could be in the tens place? (8 or 9) Ones place? (1, 3, 5, 7, or 9)
o What are the possible numbers having a 1 in the hundreds place and an 8 in the lens place? (181, 183, 185, 187, and
189)
o Are there are any other numbers you can use in the hundreds place if you leave the 8 in the tens place and the odd
numbers in the ones place? (yes, a 2)
o What are the numbers? (281, 283, 285, 287, and 289)
o What other digit can be used in the tens place? (9)
o Strategy: Make a list
  Carry out the Plan
Make an Organized List
181 281 191 291
183 283 193 293
185 285 195 295
187 287 197 297
189 289 199 299

Ryan had 20 cars in his collection.

 Look Back
The above list is complete since it is an organized list which follows the given rules.
Mathematical Reasoning
All problem solving, whether in mathematics or daily life, involves reasoning, but there are some
problems for which special approaches are very effective. These problems generally present several
facts that can be used together to reach a conclusion. Combining reasoning skills with other
strategies, such as drawing a diagram or making a table, will help us find the desired solution.
By using logical reasoning, we can make a reasonable estimate, thereby eliminating many incorrect
possibilities. We use deductive thinking when we solve a problem by eliminating possibilities. By
eliminating possibilities to
solve a problem, we are eventually left with the answer to a problem.

Types of Reasoning
Reasoning is a process based on experience and principles that allow one to arrive at a conclusion.
The following types of reasoning are used to develop mathematical principles.
 Intuition: An inspiration leading to the statement of a theory.
 Induction: An organized effort to test and validate the theory.
 Deduction: A formal argument that proves the tested theory.
Intuition
We are often inspired to think and say, “It occurs to me that ... With intuition, a sudden
insight allows one to make a statement without applying any formal reasoning. When intuition
is used, we sometimes err by “jumping” to conclusions. In a cartoon, the character having the
“bright idea” (using intuition) is shown with a light bulb next to her or his head.

Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific
examples.

 When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list according
to some pattern you have observed, you are using inductive reasoning. The conclusion
formed by using inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it may or may not
be correct.
Example 1:
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
• 2, 8, 14, 20, 26,
• 1, 2, 5, 10, 17, 26,

 Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. It is also used to make
conclusions/conjectures about certain observed patterns.

Example 2: Each of the following statements uses inductive reasoning.

• Every sports car I have ever seen is red. Thus all sports cars are red.
• The coin I pulled from the bag is a 5-peso coin. Another 5-peso coin is drawn from the bag.
A third coin from the bag is again a 5-peso coin. Therefore, all the coins in the bag are 5-
peso coins.
• Observe that 1 + 1 = 2, 1 + 3 = 4, 3 + 5 = 8, 7 + 11 = 18. Thus the sum of two odd integers is
always even.
• Since 1 = 12, 2 < 22, 3 < 32, −1 < (−1)2, and −2 < (−2)2, it follows that n ≤ n2 for any real number n.
Example 3:
Consider the following. Pick a number. Multiply the number by 4, add 8 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and
subtract 5. Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a
conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original number.

Solution
Suppose we start with 7 as the original number. Then repeat the process for different numbers. The procedure
yields the following:

We conjecture that the given procedure produces a number that is one less than twice the original
number.
 When you use inductive reasoning, you have no guarantee that your conclusion is correct. Just
because a pattern holds true for a few cases, it does not mean the pattern will continue. A
statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case for
which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false statement.

Example:
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample for each.
For all real numbers n:

1.

2.
Deductive Reasoning
 Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
 Deductive reasoning is a basic form of valid reasoning. Deductive reasoning, or deduction, starts out with a general
statement, or hypothesis, and examines the possibilities to reach a specific, logical conclusion. In mathematics,
deductive reasoning makes use of definitions, axioms, theorems and rules and inference.

The following statements illustrate deductive reasoning:

o All men are mortal. Raymund is a man. Therefore, Raymund is mortal.

o Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congruent. Triangle ABC is congruent to triangle DEF. ∠B and ∠E
are corresponding angles. Thus ∠B ∼= ∠E.

Example:
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedures produces a number that is one less than twice the original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 4, add 8 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 5.

 Deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning often move in opposite directions: where the former tends to go from general
premises to specific conclusions, the latter often goes the other way−from specific examples to general conclusions.
Deductive reasoning implies logical certainty while inductive reasoning only gives you reasonable probability.

 
Logical Puzzle
 A logic puzzle is a puzzle deriving from the mathematics field of deduction.
 Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and by organizing the data in a given situation.
 A logic puzzle is basically a description of an event or any situation. Using the clues provided, one has to
piece together what actually happened. This involves clear and logical thinking, hence the term ’logic’
puzzles.

Example 1: 
Three musicians appeared at a concert. Their last names were Benton, Lanier, and Rosario. Each plays only one of
the following instruments: guitar, piano, or saxophone.

o Benton and the guitar player arrived at the concert together.

o The saxophone player performed before Benton.
o Rosario wished the guitar player good luck.

Who played each instrument?

Example 2:
A census-taker knocks on a door, and asks the woman inside how many children she has and how old
they are. “I have three daughters, their ages are whole numbers, and the product of the ages is 36,”
says the mother. “That’s not enough information,” responds the census-taker. “I’d tell you the sum of
their ages, but you’d still be stumped.” “I wish you’d tell me something more.” “Okay, my oldest
daughter Annie likes dogs.” What are the ages of the three daughters?

Example 3:
You have a basket containing ten apples. You have ten friends, who each desire an apple. You give
each of your friends, one apple. Now all your friends have one apple each, yet there is an apple
remaining in the basket. How?
 Common Problem-Solving Strategies/Heuristics Examples:

1. Working Backwards. This strategy is used to solve problems that include a number of linked
factors or events, where some of the information has not been provided, usually at the
beginning of the problem. This entails starting with the end results and reversing the steps you
need to get those results, in order to figure out the answer to the problem.
 
Example: In a dancing competition, all contestants started dancing together. After 3
minutes, half the people were eliminated. During the next 10 minutes, half of the remaining
were eliminated. At the 15 minute mark, half again were eliminated and at the 20 minute
mark, half of those still remaining were eliminated In the last 2 minutes, one more
contestant was eliminated, leaving a winner of the competition. How many dancers were
there in the beginning?
Solution: Note that there is one winner and that the number of contestants was halved at
certain interval. Using this information, it is possible to work backward by doing the
opposite of the linked events in the problem and find out how many dancers entered the
competition.
 
Winner: 1 person
Last two minutes (1 contestant was eliminated, so add 1); 1+1=2 dancers
After 20 min. (the contestants was halved, so double);2x2=4 dancers
After 15 min. (halved, so double); 2x4=8 dancers
After 10 min. (again halved, so double); 2x8=16 dancers
After 3 min. ( halved, so double); 2x16=32 dancers
Hence, 32 dancers entered the competition.
2. Guess and Check. Often referred to as “trial and error”, it is important to recognize that an
error really isn’t a mistake at all. It helps to guide the problem solver to the next attempt at the
answer. The following are the essential features of the guess and check strategy:
 
 make an “educated’ guess at the solution
 check the guess against the conditions of the problem
 use the information obtained in checking to make s better guess
 continue this procedure until the correct answer is obtained.

Example: Maria went to her grandfather’s farm. Her grandfather has chickens and goats on
his farm. She asked him how many chickens and how many goats his farm has. He told her that
his animals had 26 heads and 68 legs and from that information she could calculate the
number of chickens and the number of goats. If you were Maria, how would you solve the
problem?
 
 Solution: To use Guess and Check strategy, think about the problem and start by making a
guess. Expect that the first guess will be wrong, but it will give some information to make
better guess next time. One may start guessing 13 chickens and 13 goats. It’s good idea to
keep a record of the guesses, like this: 

Observe that the number of legs guessed is to high, because Maria’s grandfather said that there
are 68 legs. So guess again; add more chickens and subtract some goats.
Now, there are 64 legs; four are still missing. But one can’t add any more heads since 26 is
the correct answer of heads. So, take away two chickens ( two heads and four legs) and add
two goats (two heads and eight legs).

Now the correct answer: 18 chickens and 8 goats are obtained.

3. Make a Diagram. Drawing a diagram is the most common problem-solving strategy. Very
often, a problem solver needs to draw a diagram just to understand the meaning of the problem.
The diagram represents the problem in a way we can see it, understand it and think about it
while looking for the next step. When you draw a diagram, you organize information spatially,
which h then allows the visual part of your brain to become more involved in the problem-solving
process.

Example: A frog fell down an abandoned well which was 21 meters deep. The frog found
it difficult to jump up the mud coated walls. It started its long jump up the
well at six a.m. It took it 15 minutes to jump 3 meters because the walls were so
slippery. At the end of every 15-minute period it rested for 5 minutes while it sadly
slipped down one meter. It continued on the same rate. At what time did it finally reach
the top of the well?
Solution: This problem can be approached in a number of ways. We can draw a time line with 1 cm
marks. One centimeter represents 1 meter the frog jumps or slips. Drawing the line will help the
student to visualize the problem.

It would take the frog 195 minutes to cover the distance. It would reach the top of the well at
9:15 a.m.
4. Make a List. Making a list is a systematics method of organizing information in rows and/or
column. By putting given information in an organized list, you can clearly analyze this
information and then solve the problem by completing the list. It should be emphasized that
one should make a systematic list. By making a systematic list, one will see every possible
combination.
 
Example: A baseball team won two out of their four games. In how many different
orders could they have two wins and two losses in four games (Aufmann, Lockwood,
Nation & Clegg, 2013)?
 Solution: There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight games
and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two games and won the last
two games (LLWW). Of course there are other possibilities, such as WLWL. An
organized list is a list that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the
different orders will be listed once and only once. Each entry in the list must contain two
W’s and two L’s. One such strategy is to always write a W unless doing so will produce
too many W’s or a duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it is not possible to write a
W, then and only then do we write an L. This strategy produces the six different orders
shown below.
 
WWLL (start with two wins) LWWL
WLWL (start with one win) LWLW
WLLW LLWW
5. Look for a Pattern. This strategy entails looking for a pattern in the data in order to solve
the problem, that is, the solver looks for items or numbers that are repeated, or a series of
events that repeat. This can be used to solve many math problems and can be used in
combination with many other strategies, including make a table, make a list or simplify the
problem.
 
Example. In the song “The Twelve Days of Christmas”, a person receive a set of gifts
each day for 12 days. On the first day, she receive one gift – a partridge in a pear tree.
On the second day, she receives two turtle doves and another partridge in a pear tree –
a total of three new gifts. On the third day, she received a new gift (three French hens)
plus the gifts given on the second day, for a total of six new gifts. This continues for 12
days. How many gifts did she receives on the 12 th day?
Solution:

Hence, she received 78 gifts on the 12 th day.

6. Divide and Conquer. If a problem can’t be solved right away, divide it into parts, and solve one part at a
time. A problem which at first seems difficult becomes easier if you divide it into parts and solve one part at
a time.
Example: A mixture is 25% red paint, 30% green paint and 45% water. If 4L of red paint are added to
20L of the mixture, what is the percentage of red paint in the new mixture?

Solution: We divide the solution into parts.

a. Find the volume of red paint in the original mixture:
25% of 20L is 5L of red paint 
b. Find the total volume of red paint:
4L + 5L = 9L of red paint 
c. Find the total volume of the whole mixture:
20L + 4L =24L of the mixture 
d. Calculate the new percentage:
(9/4) . 100 = 37.5
 
Thus, 37.5% of the new mixture is red paint.
7. Solve a Simpler Problem. Sometimes you can find the answer to a problem by
solving another problem that has simpler numbers or fewer cases. To use this strategy,
first use a simpler or more familiar case of the problems. Then use the same concepts
and relationships to solve the original problem.
 
Example: What is the remainder when
 
6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6.6 is divided by 5?
 
Solution: There is a patter. The remainder is 1 when 6 is divided by 5. So, if the
given product is divided by 5, the remainder will also be 1.
8. Act it Out. Act out the problem by trying to do what the people or things in a problem do.
This strategy works because you are actually doing the problem.
 
Example: You have two hourglasses: a 4-minute glass and a 7-minute glass. You want to
measure 9 minutes. How will you do it?
 
Solution: Start both hourglasses. When the 4-minute glass runs out, turn it over (4
minutes have elapsed). When the 7-minute glass runs out, turn it over ( 7 minutes have
elapsed). When the 4-minute glass runs out this time (8 minutes have elapsed), the 7-
minute glass has been running for 1 minute. Turn it over once again. When it stops, 9-
minutes have elapsed.
9. Adopting a Different Point of View. Sometimes, a problem can be solved in a more efficient
and interesting manner if we approach it from a different point of view. That is, instead of
considering a problem in the most direct and obvious manner, a different approach may yield the
answer quickly and more efficiently. It also might reveal some interesting reasoning.
 
Example: There are 16 children in the ping-pong tournament at Almeria Central School.
The tournament is a single elimination tournament. This means that if you lose a game,
you’re out of the tournament. If you win, you move on to the next round. How many games
must be played to have a winner?
 
Solution: Instead of counting directly the number of games by making a diagram of the
possible matchups, one may focus on the winner’s point of view. Noting that the tournament
is a single-elimination, once you lose, you are out and the tournament proceeds until only
one person is left. This means that to have a winner, 15 players should be eliminated and
that requires 15bgames. Hence, there will be 15 games in the tournament.
END!!!