Deductive & Inductive

Arguments
Validity/Invalidity & Soundness
Strength/Weakness & Cognecy
Standards to Judge Arguments
• Validity/Invalidity
• Soundness
• Strength/Weakness
• Cogency
Vices & Virtues in Arguments
• Vices
• The premises do not succeed in guaranteeing the conclusion or the
conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premises
• One or more premises is/are false
• By avoiding the above two vices, we can get the corresponding
virtues: Validity and Soundness
• Validity requires one virtue (it is necessary that, if the premises are
• true, then the conclusion is true)
• Soundness requires both virtues (Validity and true premises)
Relation Between Premises and Conclusion
• In deductive arguments, the conclusion should follow from
the premises
• It should be structured in such a way that it’s valid
• An argument is valid if and only if it’s not possible that both of its premises
are true and its conclusion is false
• Whenever its conclusion is false, at least one premise must be false
• A valid argument is a deductive argument in which the
premises succeed in guaranteeing the conclusion
• An invalid argument is a deductive argument in which the
premises fail to guarantee the conclusion
Valid Arguments
• All biologists are scientists. John is not a scientist. So, John is not a
biologist.
• If Alice stole the diamonds, then she is a thief. And Alice did steal the
diamonds. Hence, Alice is a thief.
• Either Bill has a poor memory or he is lying. Bill does not have a poor
memory. Therefore, Bill is lying.
Kinds of Arguments
True Conclusion False Conclusion
True Premises Some Valid, Some Not ALL INVALID
A False Premise Some Valid, Some Not Some Valid, Some Not
Kinds of Arguments...
• An argument can have one or more false premises and still be valid.
• All birds have beaks. Some cats are birds. So, some cats have beaks.
• An argument can have both false premises but can still be valid.
• All sharks are birds. All birds are politicians. So, all sharks are politicians.
Kinds of Arguments...
• We cannot rightly conclude that an argument is valid
simply on the grounds that its premises are all true.
• Some Americans are women. Brad Pitt is an American.
Therefore, Brad Pitt is a woman.
• Is this argument valid?
• Some Americans work in the movie industry. Angelina Jolie
is an American. Hence Angelina Jolie works in the movie
industry.
• The question, “are the premises really true?” is
distinct from “is the argument valid?”
Kinds of Arguments...
• One can know whether an argument is valid or invalid even if one
does not know the truth value of the conclusion and all of the
premises.
• All Schnitzers are BMWs. Emily Larson owns a Schnitzer. So, Emily Larson
owns a BMW.

• All reliabilists are foundationalists. William Alston is a foundationalist. Thus,

William Alston is a reliabilist.
What Validity is Not
• Validity is a technical term for arguments
• A valid argument is NOT necessarily good
• Validity does not depend on whether the premises and the conclusion
are actually true
• Validity depends on what is possible
• Some premises with false conclusions can be valid
• Some premises with true conclusions can be invalid
Example
• Our assumptions
• All Honda cars have four tires
• Some Honda cars do not have four doors
• Hasan’s only car is a four-door Honda with four tires
• Sana’s only car is a two-door Toyota with four tires
Example...
• All Honda cars have four tires
Hasan’s car is a Honda
So Hasan’s car has four tires
Example...
• All Honda cars have four tires
• Hasan’s car has four tires
• Hasan’s car is a Honda
Example...
• All Hondas have four doors
Hasan’s car is a Honda
Hasan’s car has four doors
Example...
• Some Honda cars do not have four doors
Hasan’s car is a Honda
Hasan’s car does not have four doors
Exercise
• Washington is in United States. I live in Washington. So I live in the
United States.
• Washington is in the United States. I live in the United States. So I live
in Washington.
• Washington is in the United Kingdom. I live in Washington. So I live in
the United Kingdom.
Soundness
• If valid arguments can have false premises, then what good are they?

• An argument is sound if and only if

• All of its premises are true
• It is valid
• A sound argument is a valid argument in which all of the premises are
true
Soundness...
Premise Conclusion Valid Not Valid
True True Sound Not Sound
True False Impossible Not Sound
False True Not Sound Not Sound
False False Not Sound Not Sound
Ways an Argument Can be Unsound
• The argument is invalid
• It has a false premise
• If a deductive argument is not sound, then it is not a good argument
• If you know an argument is invalid, then you also know it is unsound
Examples
• All birds are animals. Some grizzly bears are not animals. Therefore,
some grizzly bears are not birds.
• All birds are animals. All grizzly bears are animals. So, all grizzly bears
are birds.
• All trees are animals. All bears are animals. So, all bears are trees.
Exercise
• Assume that the following sentences are either true (T) or false (F) as
indicated:
• All my children are teenagers. (T)
All teenagers are students. (T)
All teenagers are my children. (F)
All my children are students. (T)
Exercise...
• All my children are teenagers.
All teenagers are students.
All my children are students.
• Valid and Sound
• Valid but Unsound
• Invalid and unsound

• All my children are students.

All teenagers are students.
All my children are teenagers.
• Valid and Sound
• Valid but Unsound
• Invalid and Unsound
Exercise...
• All teenagers are my children.
All my children are students.
All teenagers are students.
• Valid and Sound
• Valid but Unsound
• Invalid and Unsound
 Valid Argument Invalid Argument
True Premises If Harry loved Dumbledore, Some Americans work in
True Conclusion then Harry was sad when business. Donald Trump is
Dumbledore died. Harry an American. So, Donald
loved Dumbledore. So, Trump works in business.
Harry was sad when
Dumbledore died.
False Premises All sharks are birds. All Every genius is a
False Conclusion birds are politicians. So, all philosopher. Shoaib Malik
sharks are politicians. is a philosopher. So, Shoaib
Malik is a genius.
False Premises All dogs are ants. All ants Everything coloured is red.
True Conclusion are mammals. So, all dogs Adeel Zaffar is a mortician.
are mammals. So, Addel Zaffar is hilarious.
True Premises All dogs are animals. All
False Conclusion cats are animals. Hence, all
dogs are cats.
Unknown Truth Value All of the Cappadocians Some hylidae are
accepted perichoresis. heterophoric. Maggie is
Basil was a Cappadocian. heterophoric. So, Maggie
So, Basil accepted is a hylidae.
perichoresis.
Categories of Unsound Arguments
• Category 1. It is valid, but it has at least one false premise.
• Category 2. It is invalid, but all of its premises are true.
• Category 3. It is invalid and it has at least one false premise.

• An unsound argument is one that either is invalid or has at least one

false premise.
Map of Main Concepts

Deductive Arguments
Valid Invalid
Arguments Arguments
Valid Valid
arguments arguments
All invalid
with all with at least
arguments
true premises one false
are unsound.
are premise are
sound. unsound.
Inductive Strength & Weakness
• Strong inductive arguments are well-reasoned
• The conclusion follows probably from the premises
• A strong argument is one in which it is probable (but not necessary) that, if
the premises are true, then the conclusion is true.
• Negatively, a strong inductive argument is one in which it is possible, but
improbable, that the conclusion is false, given the assumption that the
premises are true
• Weak inductive argument is one in which it is not probable that, if the
premises are true, then the conclusion is true
Examples
• All meteorites found to this day have contained sugar. Therefore,
probably the next meteorite to be found will contain sugar.
Inductive Strength & Weakness...
• 98 percent of Lahore Qalandars fans believe they can win the PSL.
Adnan is a Lahore Qalandars fan. So, Adnan believes they can win the
PSL.
• 14 percent of Karachi Kings fans prefer Amir Yameen to Muhammad
Amir. Nadia is a Karachi Kings fan. So, Nadia prefers Amir Yameen to
Muhammad Amir.
Inductive Strength & Weakness...
• According to Boston University historian Howard Zinn, an expert in
early twentieth-century American history, by 1933, the worst year of
America’s Great Depression, one-fourth to one-third of America’s
labour force was out of work. So, one-fourth to one-third of American
workers were unemployed in 1933.
• According to Ali Hassan, an incoming freshman at LUMS, Pakistan’s
GNP will decrease by 4.67 percent next year. So, the GNP of Pakistan
will go down nearly 5 percent next year.
Inductive Strength & Weakness...
• Rehan’s horse is similar in certain respects (size, speed, strength and
training) to Zoe’s horse. Zoe’s horse is able to jump the fence. Hence,
Rehan’s horse is able to jump the fence also.

• The horses have the same coat and eye colour, they have the same
length of mane and tail, they have the same number of nostrils, and
both have riders wearing Levi’s 501s.
Inductive Strength & Weakness...
• Strength and weakness come in degrees but validity and invalidity do
not
• In statistical arguments, the strength and weakness will vary
according to the numerical values of the percentages
• How will it vary in arguments by authority?
• How will it vary in arguments from analogy?
Inductive Strength & Weakness...
•According to the National Weather Service, there is a 60 percent chance of rain
today.
Therefore, probably it will rain today.

•According to the National Weather Service, there is a 90 percent chance of rain

today.
Therefore, probably it will rain today.

•According to the National Weather Service, there is a 40 percent chance of rain

today.
Therefore, probably it will rain today.

•According to the National Weather Service, there is a 10 percent chance of rain

today.
Therefore, probably it will rain today.
Cogent and Uncogent Arguments
• An inductively strong argument with all true premises is a cogent argument
• No U.S. president has been a U.S. skateboarding champ.
Therefore, probably the next U.S. president will not be a U.S. Skateboarding champ.
• All or nearly all lemons that have been tasted were sour. So, the next lemon you
taste will be sour.

• An inductive argument that is either weak, or strong with at least one false
premise is an uncogent argument
• All previous U.S. presidents have been Democrats.
Therefore, probably the next U.S. president will be a Democrat.
Uncogent Argument Categories
• Category 1. It is strong, but it has at least one false premise.
• Category 2. It is weak, but all of its premises are true.
• Category 3. It is weak and it has at least one false premise.
Map of the Main Concepts

Inductive Arguments
Strong Weak
Arguments Arguments
Strong Strong
arguments arguments Weak
with all with at least arguments
true premises one false are all
are premise are uncogent.
cogent. uncogent.
 Examples
• Since some fruits are green, and some fruits are apples, it follows that
some fruits are green apples.

• Coca-Cola is an extremely popular soft drink. Therefore, probably

someone, somewhere, is drinking a Coke right this minute.

• Since Agatha is the mother of Raquel and the sister of Tom, it follows
that Tom is the uncle of Raquel.
Writing Well-Crafted or
Standardized Arguments
Principles
Principles for Writing Well-Crafted Versions
of Arguments
• Principle 1: Identify the premise and conclusion
• We should abolish the death penalty because it does not deter
crime.
• 1. The death penalty does not deter crime.
• So, 2. We should abolish the death penalty.
• Principle 2: Eliminate excess verbiage
• Words and statements that add nothing to the argument, should
not be included in the well-crafted version of the argument.
• Four common types of excess verbiage
• Discount
• Repetition
• Assurances
• Hedges
Discount
• A discount is an acknowledgment of a fact or possibility that might
be thought to render the argument invalid, weak, unsound, or
uncogent.
• Although certain events in the subatomic realm occur at random, I
still say that the universe as a whole displays a marvellous order.
Perhaps the best evidence for this is the fact that scientists continue
to discover regularities that can be formulated as laws.
• Discounts are very important rhetorically
Discount...
• 1. Scientists continue to discover regularities that can be formulated
as laws.
• So, 2. The universe as a whole displays a marvellous order.
• The following are used as discount indicators:
• although while it may be true that
• even though while I admit that
• in spite of the fact that I realize that . . . , but
• despite the fact that I know that . . . , but
Repetition
• Repetition
• Authors and speakers who use repetition restate a premise or conclusion,
perhaps altering the wording slightly.
• The study of logic will increase both your attention span and your
patience with difficult concepts. In other words, if you apply yourself
to the subject of logic, you’ll find yourself able to concentrate for
longer periods of time. You will also find yourself increasingly able to
approach complex material without feeling restless or frustrated.
Therefore, a course in logic is well worth the effort.
Repetition...
• 1. The study of logic will increase both your attention span and your
patience with difficult concepts.
• So, 2. A course in logic is well worth the effort.

• Repetition aids memorization

• Can correct possible misunderstandings and/or make an idea more
vivid.
Assurance
• An assurance is a statement, word, or phrase that indicates that the author is
confident of a premise or inference.

• Ben will do well in the marathon, for he is obviously in excellent

condition.
Assurance...
• 1. Ben is in excellent condition.
• So, 2. Ben will do well in the marathon.

• obviously everyone knows that

• no doubt it is well known that
• certainly no one will deny that
• plainly this is undeniable
• clearly this is a fact
Hedge
• A hedge is a statement, word, or phrase that indicates that the
arguer is tentative about a premise or inference.

• In my opinion, we have lost the war on drugs. Accordingly, drugs

should be legalized.
Hedge...
• 1. We have lost the war on drugs.
• So, 2. Drugs should be legalized.

• I think that I believe that

• it seems that I guess that
• perhaps it is reasonable to suppose that
• maybe this seems reasonable
• in my opinion this is plausible
Exceptions to Assurance and Hedge
• Assurance and Hedges cannot always be dropped, for they sometimes
contribute to the validity, strength, soundness, or cogency of the
argument.

• I am in pain if it seems to me that I am in pain. And it seems to me

that I am in pain. Therefore, I am in pain.
Exceptions to Assurance and Hedge
• 1. If it seems to me that I am in pain, then I am in pain.
• 2. It seems to me that I am in pain.
• So, 3. I am in pain.
Uniform Language
• Principle 3: Employ uniform language
• The linkage between premises and conclusion can become obscured
• If you study other cultures, then you realize what a variety of human
customs there is. If you understand the diversity of social practices,
then you question your own customs. If you acquire doubts about the
way you do things, then you become more tolerant. Therefore, if you
expand your knowledge of anthropology, then you become more
likely to accept other people and practices without criticism.
Well-Crafted Version
• 1. If you study other cultures, then you realize what a variety of
human customs there is.
• 2. If you realize what a variety of human customs there is, then you
question your own customs.
• 3. If you question your own customs, then you become more tolerant.
• So, 4. If you study other cultures, then you become more tolerant.
When to Substitute?
• (1) the substitution makes the structure of the argument clearer, and
• (2) the substitution, in this or any other context, does not change the
intended content of the statement.
Fairness and Charity
• Principle 4: Be fair and charitable in interpreting an argument
• Fairness
• Involves being loyal to the original, not distorting the clear meaning.
• Charity
• Needed when the original is ambiguous in some respect; it involves selecting
an interpretation that puts the argument in its best possible light.
Charity
• Oh, yes, we are all deeply appreciative of the full and accurate
information we received from our government during the Vietnam
War. So, how can anyone doubt that we received full and accurate
information during the war in the Persian Gulf?
Well-Crafted Version
• 1. Americans did not receive full and accurate information from their
government during the Vietnam War.
• So, 2. Americans possibly (or probably) did not receive full and
accurate information from their government during the war in the
Persian Gulf.
Charity
• Flag burning should be outlawed. I realize that there are worse things
than flag burning, such as murder or kidnapping, but it ought to be
illegal. Many people are disturbed by it. And it is unpatriotic. How
important is freedom of expression, anyway?
Well-Crafted Version?
• 1. Many people are disturbed by flag burning.
• 2. Flag burning is unpatriotic.
• 3. Freedom of expression is not the most important.
• So, 4. Flag burning should be outlawed.