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Knowledge Representation
J. Felicia Lilian
Introduction to KR
• Human beings are good at understanding, reasoning and interpreting
knowledge.
• And using this knowledge, they are able to perform various actions in
the real world.
• But how do machines perform the same?
• Knowledge Representation in AI describes it as a study of how the

beliefs, intentions, and judgments of an intelligent agent can be
expressed suitably for automated reasoning.
• One of the primary purposes of Knowledge Representation includes

modeling intelligent behavior for an agent.
Knowledge Representation & Reasoning
• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR, KRR) represents

information from the real world for a computer to understand and
then utilize this knowledge to solve complex real-life problems like
communicating with human beings in natural language.
• Knowledge representation in AI is not just about storing data in a

database, it allows a machine to learn from that knowledge and
behave intelligently like a human being.
Types of KR
1. Declarative Knowledge: 3. Meta-knowledge:
• Declarative knowledge is to know • Knowledge about the other types
about something. of knowledge is called Meta-
• It includes concepts, facts, and knowledge.
objects. 4. Heuristic knowledge:
• It is also called descriptive knowledge • Heuristic knowledge is representing
and expressed in declarative knowledge of some experts in a
sentences. filed or subject.
• It is simpler than procedural language. • Heuristic knowledge is rules of
2. Procedural Knowledge thumb based on previous
• It is also known as imperative experiences, awareness of
knowledge. approaches, and which are good to
• Procedural knowledge is a type of work but not guaranteed.
knowledge which is responsible for 5. Structural knowledge:
knowing how to do something. • Structural knowledge is basic
• It can be directly applied to any task. knowledge to problem-solving.
• It includes rules, strategies,
• It describes relationships between
procedures, agendas, etc.
various concepts such as kind of,
• Procedural knowledge depends on the
part of, and grouping of something.
task on which it can be applied.
• It describes the relationship that
exists between concepts or objects.
Basic Cycle of Knowledge Representation in
AI
• Artificial Intelligent Systems usually consist of
various components to display their intelligent
behavior.
• Some of these components include:
– Perception
– Learning
– Knowledge Representation & Reasoning
– Planning
– Execution
Representations & Mappings
• Two kinds of entities:
– Facts  truths
– Representation of facts
• Representing these entities as,
– Knowledge level
– Symbol level
• Representation mapping
– Forward mapping
• Facts to representation
– Backward mapping
• Representation to facts
Examples
Fact : Spot is a dog
Logic representation : dog(Spot)
Fact : All dogs have tails
Logic representation :
hastail(spot)  Spot has a tail
All dogs have tails  Every dog has at least one tail /
Every dog has several tails
Every dog has a tail  Every dog has at least one tail /
A tail that every dog has
Simple Relational knowledge
• Who is the heaviest player?

Inheritable knowledge
• Knowledge about object, attributes and associated values
• Augment the basic representation into an structure
representation
Inferential knowledge
• Inferential knowledge approach represents knowledge in the form of
formal logics.
• This approach can be used to derive more facts.
• It guaranteed correctness.
• Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:

– Marcus is a man
– All men are mortal
Then it can represent as;
man(Marcus)
∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

Procedural knowledge
• Procedural knowledge approach uses small programs and codes which
describes how to do specific things, and how to proceed.
• In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.
• In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP

language and Prolog language.
• We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using

this approach.
• But it is not necessary that we can represent all cases in this approach.
Approaches to KR
• Four properties:
– Representational Adequacy  represent all kinds
of knowledge
– Inferential Adequacy  manipulate the
representational structure
– Inferential Efficiency  incorporate into
knowledge
– Acquisitional Efficiency  Acquire new
information / knowledge
Techniques of knowledge
representation
Logical Representation
• Logical representation is a language with some concrete rules which deals
with propositions and has no ambiguity in representation.
• Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various
conditions.
• This representation lays down some important communication rules.
• It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which supports the
sound inference.
• Each sentence can be translated into logics using syntax and semantics.
Syntax:
• Syntaxes are the rules which decide how we can construct legal sentences in
the logic.
• It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.
• How to write those symbols.
Semantics:
• Semantics are the rules by which we can interpret the sentence in the logic.
• Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.
Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:
• Propositional Logics
• Predicate logics
Semantic Network Representation
• Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge
representation.
• In Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of

graphical networks.
• This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which

describe the relationship between those objects.
• Semantic networks can categorize the object in different forms and can
also link those objects.
• Semantic networks are easy to understand and can be easily extended.

Types of relations:
– IS-A relation (Inheritance)
– Kind-of-relation
Example: Following are some statements which we need to
represent in the form of nodes and arcs.
Axioms:
• Jerry is a cat.
• Jerry is a mammal
• Jerry is owned by Priya.
• Jerry is brown colored.
• All Mammals are animal.
Frame Representation
• A frame is a record like structure which consists of a collection of
attributes and its values to describe an entity in the world.
• Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into
substructures by representing stereotypes situations.
• It consists of a collection of slots and slot values.
• These slots may be of any type and sizes.
• Slots have names and values which are called facets.

Facet
• Facets are features of frames which enable us to put
constraints on the frames.
Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of any

particular slot is needed.
A frame may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may

include any number of facets and facets may have any number
of values.
A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge

representation in artificial intelligence.
Semantic Network  Frames
• Frames are derived from semantic networks and later evolved into
our modern-day classes and objects.
• A single frame is not much useful.
• Frames system consist of a collection of frames which are

connected.
• In the frame, knowledge about an object or event can be stored
together in the knowledge base.
• The frame is a type of technology which is widely used in various
applications including Natural language processing and machine
visions.
Example: Frame for a book
Slots Filters
Title Artificial Intelligence

Genre Computer Science
Author Peter Norvig
Edition Third Edition
Year 1996
Page 1152
Example: Peter is an engineer as a profession,
and his age is 25, he lives in city London, and the
country is England.
Slots Filter
Name Peter
Profession Doctor
Age 25
Marital status Single
Weight 78
Production Rules
• Production rules system consist of (condition, action) pairs which
mean, "If condition then action".
• It has mainly three parts:
• The set of production rules
• Working Memory
• The recognize-act-cycle
• The agent checks for the condition and if the condition exists then
production rule fires and corresponding action is carried out.
• The condition part of the rule determines which rule may be
applied to a problem.
• And the action part carries out the associated problem-solving
steps.
• This complete process is called a recognize-act cycle.
• The working memory contains the description of
the current state of problems-solving and rule can
write knowledge to the working memory.
• This knowledge match and may fire other rules.
• If there is a new situation (state) generates, then
multiple production rules will be fired together,
this is called conflict set.
• In this situation, the agent needs to select a rule
from these sets, and it is called a conflict
resolution.
Example:
• IF (at bus stop AND bus arrives) THEN action (get
into the bus)
• IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN

action (sit down).
• IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).
• IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get

down from the bus).

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Knowledge Representation

• But how do machines perform the same?

• Knowledge Representation in AI describes it as a study of how the

• One of the primary purposes of Knowledge Representation includes

• Knowledge Representation and Reasoning (KR, KRR) represents

• Knowledge representation in AI is not just about storing data in a

hastail(spot)  Spot has a tail

• Who is the heaviest player?

• This approach can be used to derive more facts.

• Example: Let's suppose there are two statements:

– All men are mortal

Then it can represent as;

∀x = man (x) ----------> mortal (x)s

• In this approach, one important rule is used which is If-Then rule.

• In this knowledge, we can use various coding languages such as LISP

• We can easily represent heuristic or domain-specific knowledge using

with propositions and has no ambiguity in representation.

• Logical representation means drawing a conclusion based on various

• This representation lays down some important communication rules.

• It consists of precisely defined syntax and semantics which supports the

• It determines which symbol we can use in knowledge representation.

• How to write those symbols.

• Semantic also involves assigning a meaning to each sentence.

Logical representation can be categorised into mainly two logics:

• In Semantic networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of

• This network consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which

• Semantic networks are easy to understand and can be easily extended.

attributes and its values to describe an entity in the world.

• Frames are the AI data structure which divides knowledge into

substructures by representing stereotypes situations.

• It consists of a collection of slots and slot values.

• These slots may be of any type and sizes.

• Slots have names and values which are called facets.

Example: IF-NEEDED facts are called when data of any

A frame may consist of any number of slots, and a slot may

A frame is also known as slot-filter knowledge

• Frames system consist of a collection of frames which are

Title Artificial Intelligence

• IF (on the bus AND paid AND empty seat) THEN

• IF (on bus AND unpaid) THEN action (pay charges).

• IF (bus arrives at destination) THEN action (get

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