AERODYNAMICS 2

CHAPTER 1

Wing Theory
Infinite vs Finite wings
A large bulk of experimental airfoil data were
systematically measured in low-speed subsonic wind
tunnels. These measurements were carried out on
straight, constant-chord wings that completely spanned
the tunnel test section from
one side wall to the other. In this fashion, the flow
essentially “saw” a wing with no wingtips; that is the
wing in principle could be stretching from positive
infinity to negative infinity. The flow about this wing
varies only in the x and y directions (two-dimensional)
Infinite wing
Infinite vs Finite wings
In contrast, all real airplane wings are finite. The
flow field about a finite wing is three-dimensional.
As a result, the airfoil data for a finite wing with a
given airfoil shape at a given differ from the airfoil
data for an infinite wing with the same airfoil shape
at the same

Finite wing
Definition of Wing Properties
Geometric Wingspan, b
Geometric Wingspan, b - is the distance between tip to tip of the wing, measured perpendicular to the
airplane of wing centerline, regardless of the geometric shape of the wing.
Wing Area, S
Wing Area, S – is defined as the shaded area in the figures below, S is the projection of the planform on a
plane of reference which is usually the chord plane.

𝑏
𝑆=𝑏𝑐 𝑆= (𝑐𝑟 +𝑐 𝑡 )
2
Wing aspect ratio, AR
Wing aspect ratio, AR – is the ratio of the span of a wing to its mean chord. If the planform has
curvature and the average is not easily determined, an alternative expression () can be used. The aspect
ratio of the wing determines the aerodynamic characteristics and structural weight. Typical aspect ratios
vary from 35 for a high-performance sailplane to 3 for a jet fighter. The aspect ratio of a modern high
speed jet transport is about 12.

1. , is the ratio of the wing span to the mean chord

2. , is the ratio of the square of the wing span to the total wing area

3. , is the ratio of the total wing area to the square of the mean chord
Wing aspect ratio, AR
Taper ratio,
Taper ratio, – is the ratio of the tip chord ct to the root chord cr.

𝒄𝒕
𝝀=
𝒄𝒓
Sweep Angle, Λ
Sweep Angle, Λ – is the angle between a line perpendicular to the centerline and the leading edge or the
quarter chord line. It is denoted as ΛL.E. or Λc/4
Dihedral
Dihedral Angle – is the angle between the horizontal datum of an airplane and the plane of a wing
Mean Aerodynamic Chord, MAC
MAC – a 2-dimensional representation of the whole wing. The pressure distribution over the entire wing
can be reduced to a single lift force on and a moment around the aerodynamic center of the MAC

( )
𝟐
𝟐 𝝀 + 𝝀+ 𝟏
𝑴𝑨𝑪= 𝒄𝒓
𝟑 𝝀+𝟏
MGC Construction

Example of MGC Construction

Sample problem
1. A swept wing with 30 ft span has a leading-edge and trailing-edge sweep angle of 30° and 15°
respectively. Viewing from the top, the base of the root chord is aligned horizontally to the tip of
the tip chord. Find the magnitudes of root chord, tip chord and the mean aerodynamic chord.

Given: Solution:
For : For : For :
𝑐𝑟 𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑡
tan 30= tan 15= 𝜆=
15 15 𝑐𝑟
𝑐 𝑟 =15 tan 30 𝑐 𝑡 =15 tan 15 𝜆=
4.02 𝑓𝑡
8.66 𝑓𝑡

𝑐 𝑟 =8.66 𝑓𝑡 𝑐 𝑡 =4.02 𝑓𝑡 𝜆=0.464

Required:
ct , cr , and
Sample problem
1. A swept wing with 30 ft span has a leading-edge and trailing-edge sweep angle of 30° and 15°
respectively. Viewing from the top, the base of the root chord is aligned horizontally to the tip of
the tip chord. Find the magnitudes of root chord, tip chord and the mean aerodynamic chord.

Given: Solution:
For:
2
𝑀𝐴𝐶= ( 8.66 𝑓𝑡 )
3 [
( 0.464 )2 +0.464 +1
0.464+1 ]
𝑀𝐴𝐶=6.62 𝑓𝑡

Required:
ct , cr , and
Sample problem
2. A swept wing with a half-span of 10m has a leading-edge and trailing-edge sweep of 45° and 20°
respectively. A line connecting the trailing edge of the root chord and the leading-edge of the tip
chord is perpendicular to the airplane’s longitudinal axis. Find the mean aerodynamic chord.

Given: Solution:
For : For : For :
4 5°
𝑐𝑟 𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑡
tan 45= tan 20= 𝜆=
10 10 𝑐𝑟
4 5°
20°
𝑐 𝑟 =10 tan 45 𝑐 𝑡 =10 tan 20 𝜆=
3.64 𝑚
10 𝑚

10𝑚 𝑐 𝑟 =10𝑚 𝑐 𝑡 =3.64𝑚 𝜆=0.364

Required:
ct , cr , and
Sample problem
2. A swept wing with a half-span of 10m has a leading-edge and trailing-edge sweep of 45° and 20°
respectively. A line connecting the trailing edge of the root chord and the leading-edge of the tip
chord is perpendicular to the airplane’s longitudinal axis. Find the mean aerodynamic chord.

Given: Solution:
For:
4 5°

[ ]
2
2 ( 0.364 ) +0.364+1
𝑀𝐴𝐶= (10 𝑓𝑡 )
3 0.364+1
4 5°
20° 𝑀𝐴𝐶=7.31 𝑓𝑡
10𝑚

Required:
ct , cr , and
Sample problem
3. A swept wing with a span of 28m has a root chord of 8m and a tip chord of 13.12 ft. A line
connecting the trailing edge of the root chord and quarter chord of the tip chord is perpendicular to
the airplane’s longitudinal axis. Find the mean aerodynamic chord. What are the leading-edge and
trailing-edge sweep angles?
Given: Solution:

Λ 𝐿. 𝐸 . For : For:

8𝑚 𝜆=
𝑐𝑡
𝑐𝑟
2
𝑀𝐴𝐶 = ( 8 𝑚 )
3
( 0. 5 )2+0. 5 +1
0. 5 +1 [ ]
4𝑚
𝜆=
𝑀𝐴𝐶=6.22𝑚
Λ𝑇 . 𝐸. 13.12𝑓𝑡=4𝑚 8𝑚

28 𝑚 𝜆=0.5
Required:
ct , cr , and
Sample problem
3. A swept wing with a span of 28m has a root chord of 8m and a tip chord of 13.12 ft. A line
connecting the trailing edge of the root chord and quarter chord of the tip chord is perpendicular to
the airplane’s longitudinal axis. Find the mean aerodynamic chord. What are the leading-edge and
trailing-edge sweep angles?
Given: Solution:

Λ 𝐿. 𝐸 . For: For:
7 3
tan Λ 𝐿 . 𝐸 . =
8𝑚 Λ 𝐿. 𝐸 .
14 tan Λ 𝑇 . 𝐸 . =
14
1𝑚 −1 7 3
Λ 𝐿 . 𝐸 . =tan Λ 𝑇 . 𝐸 . = tan
−1

Λ𝑇 . 𝐸. 13.12𝑓𝑡=4𝑚 14 14

Λ 𝐿. 𝐸 .=26.57° Λ𝑇 . 𝐸.=12.09°
1
Required:
4 𝑚
ct , cr , and
Sample problem
4. A 45 ft span tapered wing with equal lengths of L.E. and T.E. has a taper ratio of 0.2439. Find
the length of the MAC. What is the distance of the MAC from the root chord if the length of the tip
chord is 4ft?

Given: Solution:
𝜆=0.2439 For : For:
𝑐𝑡
[ ]
2
2 ( 0.2439 ) + 0.2439+ 1
𝜆= 𝑀𝐴𝐶= (16.4 𝑓𝑡 )
𝑐𝑟 3 0.2439+ 1
𝑀𝐴𝐶 4 𝑓𝑡 𝑐𝑟 =
4 𝑓𝑡
𝑀𝐴𝐶=11.46 𝑓𝑡
0.2439

?22.5 𝑓𝑡 𝑐 𝑟 =16.4 𝑓𝑡
Required:
, Dist. MAC from cr.
 Sample problem
4. A 45 ft span tapered wing with equal lengths of L.E. and T.E. has a taper ratio of 0.2439. Find
the length of the MAC. What is the distance of the MAC from the root chord if the length of the tip
chord is 4ft?

Given: Solution:
𝜆=0.2439 For :

6.2 𝑓𝑡11.456 𝑓𝑡 3.73 𝑓𝑡

𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟 Δ𝑠: 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 . from   𝑐 𝑟 =22.5 𝑓𝑡 −13.53 𝑓𝑡
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡 . from  𝑐 𝑟 =8.97 𝑓𝑡
4 𝑓𝑡 4 𝑓𝑡
3.73 𝑓𝑡 4 𝑓𝑡 6.2 𝑓𝑡 3.73 𝑓𝑡

6.2 𝑓𝑡 𝑥
22.5 𝑓𝑡
?22.5 𝑓𝑡 22.5
=
𝑥
Required: 6.2 3 .73
, Dist. MAC from cr.
𝑥=13.53 𝑓𝑡
 - END -
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Laus Deo Semper!