Week 8 2.

5G/3G/CDMA
• 2.5G -> HSCSD, GPRS -> EDGE

• 3G Why? The Promise

Overview
Orthogonal Codes

• CDMA Codes
PN Codes

Power Control Near Far Problem

 GSM Enhancements
• GSM has been designed for speech communication.
• Although the standard also offers data services, their
possibilities are limited by a data rate of 9.6 kbps.
• In the multimedia or Internet sector, higher data rates are
necessary.
• Additional bearer services to meet this DATA demand were
developed for GSM phase 2+, namely
• HSCSD (High Speed Circuit Switch Data)
• GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)

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 HSCSD
• Higher data rates are achieved by multiple slot allocation
– between 2 and 8 time slots can be allocated
– with 9.6kb/s per time slot this yields a max of 78.6kb/s
• HSCSD is intended for video and multimedia communication
• The drawback to HSCSD is that at the air interface, a complete
traffic channel is allocated for a single user for the entire call
period. In case of bursty traffic (e.g., Internet traffic), this
results in a highly inefficient resource utilisation.

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 GPRS
• Packet switched service concept for wireless data
transmission within GSM
• Radio access based on extended GSM radio interface allowing
co-existance with standard radio access
• New fixed network elements to support IP based PLMN
intranet
• BS becomes an IP router

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 GPRS System Architecture
• In order to integrate GPRS into the existing GSM architecture,
a new class of network nodes, called GPRS support nodes
(GSN), has been introduced.
• GSNs are responsible for the delivery and routing of data
packets between the mobile stations and the external packet
data networks (PDN).
• Two type of GSN’s are defined
– SGSN Serving GPRS support node
– GGSN Gateway GPRS support node

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 Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
• A SGSN is responsible for the delivery of data packets from and to the mobile
stations within its service area.
• Its tasks include
– packet routing and transfer,
– mobility management (attach/detach and location management),
– logical link management
– authentication
– charging functions.
• The location register of the SGSN stores location information (e.g., current cell,
current VLR) and user profiles (e.g., IMSI, address(es) used in the packet data
network) of all GPRS users registered with this SGSN.

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 Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
• A GGSN acts as an interface between the GPRS backbone
network and the external packet data networks.
• It converts the GPRS packets coming from the SGSN into the
appropriate packet data protocol (PDP) format (e.g., IP or X.25)
and sends them out on the corresponding packet data network.
• In the other direction, PDP addresses of incoming data packets
are converted to the GSM address of the destination user. The
re-addressed packets are sent to the responsible SGSN.
• The GGSN also performs authentication and charging functions.

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GPRS System Architecture

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 Routing
• A GPRS mobile station located in PLMN1 sends IP packets to a
host connected to the IP network
• The SGSN that the mobile station is registered with
encapsulates the IP packets coming from the mobile station,
examines the PDP context, and routes them through the intra-
PLMN GPRS backbone to the appropriate GGSN
• The GGSN decapsulates the packets and sends them out on
the IP network, where IP routing mechanisms are used to
transfer the packets to the access router of the destination
network.

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10
 Location Management
• The main task of location management is to keep track of the user's
current location, so that, incoming packets can be routed to his or her
MS.
• The MS frequently sends location update messages to its current SGSN.
• If the MS seldom sends updates, its location is not known exactly and
paging is necessary for each downlink packet, resulting in a significant
delivery delay.
• On the other hand, if location updates happen very often, the MS's
location is well known to the network, and the data packets can be
delivered without any additional paging delay. However, quite a lot of
uplink radio capacity and battery power is consumed for mobility
management in this case.

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Location Management

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 Location Management
• In IDLE state the MS is not reachable.
• Performing a GPRS attach, the MS gets into READY state.
• With a GPRS detach it may disconnect from the network and
fall back to IDLE state. All PDP contexts will be deleted.
• The STANDBY state will be reached when an MS does not send
any packets for a longer period of time, and therefore the
READY timer (which was started at GPRS attach) expires.
• In IDLE state, no location updating is performed, i.e., the
current location of the MS is unknown to the network.

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 Location Management
• An MS in READY state informs its SGSN of every movement to
a new cell.
• For the location management of an MS in STANDBY state, a
GSM location area (LA) is divided into several routing areas
(RA).
• In general, an RA consists of several cells.
• The SGSN will only be informed when an MS moves to a new
RA; cell changes will not be disclosed.
• To find out the current cell of an MS in STANDBY state, paging
of the MS within a certain RA must be performed

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 Location Management
• Whenever an MS moves to a new RA, it sends a "routing area
update request" to its assigned SGSN.
• The message contains the routing area identity (RAI) of its old
RA.
• The base station subsystem (BSS) adds the cell identifier (CI)
of the new cell, from which the SGSN can derive the new RAI

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 Advantages of GPRS
• SPEED
– Theoretical maximum speeds of up to 171.2 kilobits per second (kbps)
are achievable with GPRS using all eight timeslots at the same time
• IMMEDIACY
– GPRS facilitates instant connections whereby information can be sent
or received immediately as the need arises, subject to radio coverage
• NEW APPLICATIONS
– GPRS fully enables the Internet applications you are used to on your
desktop from web browsing to chat over the mobile network. Other
new applications for GPRS, include file transfer and home automation

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 Advantages of GPRS
• SPECTRUM EFFICIENCY
– Packet switching means that GPRS radio resources are
used only when users are actually sending or receiving
data.
• SUPPORTS TDMA AND GSM
– It should be noted that the General Packet Radio Service is not only a
service designed to be deployed on mobile networks that are based
on the GSM digital mobile phone standard. The IS-136 Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) standard, popular in North and South
America, will also support GPRS

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 Limitations of GPRS
• LIMITED CELL CAPACITY FOR ALL USERS
– There are only limited radio resources that can be deployed for different uses- use
for one purpose precludes simultaneous use for another.
• SPEEDS MUCH LOWER IN REALITY
– The initial GPRS terminals are severely limited- supporting only one, two or three
timeslots.
• SUBOPTIMAL MODULATION
– GPRS is based on a modulation technique known as Gaussian minimum-shift keying
(GMSK). 8 PSK will be used for 3GSM
• TRANSIT DELAYS
– GPRS packets are sent in all different directions to reach the same destination so
potential transit delays can occur

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 Applications for GPRS
• CHAT
• TEXTUAL AND VISUAL INFORMATION
• STILL IMAGES
• MOVING IMAGES
• WEB BROWSING
• DOCUMENT SHARING
• AUDIO
• JOB DISPATCH
• CORPORATE EMAIL

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 Applications for GPRS
• INTERNET EMAIL
• VEHICLE POSITIONING
• REMOTE LAN ACCESS
• FILE TRANSFER
• HOME AUTOMATION

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EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution)
• Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution (EDGE) is a TDMA
technology concentrating on the air interface between the
mobile and the base station.
• Based on a new modulation process, 8 Phase Shift Keying, or
8-PSK, EDGE achieves three times the data rates of HSCSD and
GPRS at the air interface.
• A digital data unit at the air interface, a symbol, is not just one
bit, but three bits.
• With EDGE, the subscriber can use all 8 timeslots at the air
interface

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 EDGE
• EDGE allows a data rates of almost 474 kbps per user.
• The problem, with EDGE is very bit error sensitive
and requires careful planning and a sufficient number
of base stations
• 2.75G System

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GSM Evolution for Data Access
2 Mbps

UMTS

384 kbps

115 kbps EDGE

GPRS

9.6 kbps

GSM

1997 2000 2003 2003+

GSM evolution 3G

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Third Generation (3G) Networks

UMTS

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 Why 3G?

• Why do you think 3G was created?

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 3G Networks
• Great and all as GSM is, it has a number of flaws,
– You are unable to roam across the entire world
with one single mobile
– Data rates are severely limited
• Third generation aims to combine the Internet,
telephones,and broadcast media into a single
device.
• Increased capacity (more spectrally efficient)

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 3G Services: “The Promise”

 Customised Infotainment
 Multimedia Messaging Service
 Mobile Intranet/Extranet Access
 Mobile Internet Access
 Location-based Services

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 3G Networks
• Within Europe the third generation system has been termed
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS)
• At a worldwide level it has been termed the International Mobile
Telecommunication System for the Year 2000 (IMT2000).
• The ITU’s original definition of IMT2000 concerned only the data
rate. Three different rates were suggested,
– 144 kbits/s satellite and rural outdoor
– 384 kbits/s urban outdoor
– 2048 kbits/s indoor and low range outdoor
• To facilitate the large data rates required in the 3G systems a new
access technique CDMA is used

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International Standardization
• ITU (International Telecommunication Union)
– radio standards and spectrum
• IMT-2000
– ITU’s umbrella name for 3G which stands for
International Mobile Telecommunications 2000
• National and regional standards bodies are
collaborating in 3G partnership projects
– ARIB, TIA, TTA, TTC, CWTS. T1, ETSI (will learn
about some of these later)
• 3G Partnership Projects (3GPP & 3GPP2)
– focused on evolution of access and core networks

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 CDMA Overview

• For radio systems there are two resources, frequency and time.
• Division by frequency, so that each pair of communicators is
allocated part of the spectrum for all of the time, results in
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA).
• Division by time, so that each pair of communicators is
allocated all of the spectrum for part of the time results is
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).
• In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), every communicator
will be allocated the entire spectrum all of the time.
• CDMA uses codes to identify connections.

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 CDMA Overview
• Co-patented by Austrian-born actress Hedy Lamarr in 1942.
Billed by Hollywood’s Louis B. Mayer as the as the ‘most
beautiful woman in the world’, the model for Catwoman in
the original Batman comics and the first actress to appear
nude on film in a German film, ‘Extasy’, in 1932

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CDMA Overview

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 CDMA Overview
• CDMA transmits on all the frequencies for all of the time.
• The result of this is that all the users interfere.
• However, they each use a dedicated code that they have been given
by the transmitter to help them pick out their signal from the
interference.
• In CDMA, the user first generates their data, which could be, for
example, the output of a speech coder.
• This is generated at a rate known as the bit rate, which might typically
be around 16 Kbits/s.
• Each bit is then multiplied by the unique code that has been assigned
to that particular mobile by the network and the result is then
transmitted.

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 CDMA Overview
• A typical code word might be 64-bits long and the transmitter
would send this code word whenever the bit from the speech
coder was a 1 and would send the inverse whenever the bit from
the speech coder was a 0.
• Now 64 bits have to be sent whenever 1 bit is generated by the
speech coder, so the data rate becomes 16 Kbits/s ´ 64 = 1,024
Kbits/s.
• The mobile uses 64 times as much spectrum as it would have done
for FDMA.
• This higher rate of 1,024 Kbits/s is known as the chip rate.
• The process of multiplication by a codeword is known as spreading

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 CDMA Overview

User data— w aveform

S preading w aveform

Res ultant w aveform

F igure G eneration of a CD M A s ignal.

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 CDMA Overview
• At the receiver a process called despreading is required to
recover the data.
• This involves the multiplication of the received signal with the
same code word.
• Such multiplication results in the original binary information
being decoded but with an enhancement of the signal level by
a factor equal to the length of the code (e.g., 64 in the
example used).
• In the same way that with FDMA each user needs a different
frequency, with CDMA each user needs a different code.

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 Codes
• Spreading codes should be orthogonal so that they do not
generate interference.
• Two codes are said to be orthogonal to each other if, when
multiplied together over the length of the spreading code and
the total summed, the result is zero
• Consider the following example where the spreading
sequence is 1,-1,1,-1,1,-1,1,-1

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 CDMA Transmission Without Other Users

Transmit (data = 1) 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Receiver codeword 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Multiplication 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 = 8
Transmit (data = 0) -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
Receiver codeword 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Multiplication -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 = -8

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 CDMA Transmission With a Second User
Sending a “1”

Transmit (data = 1) 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Interferer (data = 1) 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1
Received signal 2 0 0 -2 2 0 0 -2
Receiver codeword 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Multiplication 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 = 8
Transmit (data = 0) -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
Interferer (data = 1) 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1
Received signal 0 2 -2 0 0 2 -2 0
Receiver codeword 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Multiplication 0 -2 -2 0 0 -2 -2 0 = -8

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 CDMA transmission With a Second User Sending a “0”

Transmit (data = 1) 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Interferer (data = 0) -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1
Received signal 0 -2 2 0 0 -2 2 0
Receiver codeword 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Multiplication 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 = 8
Transmit (data = 0) -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
Interferer (data = 0) -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1
Received signal -2 0 0 2 -2 0 0 2
Receiver codeword 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Multiplication -2 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 -2 = -8

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 CDMA Codes
• So whatever is transmitted by the interferer and by the
wanted user, the receiver produces the same result as if there
were no interferer.
• More orthogonal interferers can be added without having any
effect on the wanted signal.
• Even if the interferers are received with different power from
the transmitter, the correct result is still achieved as
demonstrated below

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 CDMA Transmission With a Second User
Transmitting at a Higher Power

Transmit (data = 1) 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Interferer (data = 1) 2 2 -2 -2 2 2 -2 -2
Received signal 3 1 -1 -3 3 1 -1 -3
Receiver codeword 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Multiplication 3 -1 -1 3 3 -1 -1 3 = 8
Transmit (data = 0) -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
Interferer (data = 1) 2 2 -2 -2 2 2 -2 -2
Received signal 1 3 -3 -1 1 3 -3 -1
Receiver codeword 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
Multiplication 1 -3 -3 1 1 -3 -3 1 = -8

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 Codes
• The codes that were used previously are actually two of the so-
called Walsh code family, which is the most widely used sets of
CDMA codes in cellular applications
• All of these codes are orthogonal to each other
• In a single cell in isolation, each channel can be given a separate
Walsh code and the maximum system capacity can be reached.
• The problem comes when there is a number of neighboring cells
using the same frequency.
• In order to prevent excessive interference, all the users in all the
neighboring cells need different spreading sequences.
• However there are a limited number of orthogonal codes

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 PN Codes
• If nearly orthogonal codes were used rather than fully orthogonal
codes that the interference between different users would not be
too severe.
• There is a family of near-orthogonal codes called pseudo-noise, or
PN codes.
• The good thing about PN codes is that there are literally millions of
them, overcoming the limitations with Walsh codes.
• A PN code is a sequence of 1s and 0s that repeats periodically.
• PN code sequences have the property that if multiplied by
themselves the result has the same magnitude as the length of the
sequence.

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 PN Codes
• If multiplied by the same sequence but shifted in time by any
number of bits, the result is -1 (unlike orthogonal codes
where the result is 0), which means that some interference is
generated.
• In the mobile systems there is a tendency to give each user a
separate PN code since they could roam into any cell and
there is a need to ensure that they do not generate
interference wherever they are.

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 CDMA Power Control
• One of the main concerns with CDMA is power control.
• If a system using nearly orthogonal codes could normally accommodate eight
users and one user transmits at four times the level than he needs to, then only
three other users can be tolerated.
• In a cellular environment, some of the subscriber terminals will be closer to the
base station than others.
• In order to maximize the system capacity it is important that those closer to the
BS transmit with a lower power so that all signal levels are received with the
same signal strength.
• The accuracy required for this power control is very high. A 3-dB error would
halve the capacity of the system.
• In cellular CDMA systems, such accuracy is very difficult to achieve as mobiles
pass through a fast fading environment.

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 Near Far Problem

MS1

node B
MS2

MS 1

MS 1
MS 2
MS 2

S ignals at S ignals after

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antenna des preading
 Near Far Problem
Consider the following example. Prx1 is the power of mobile
station MS 1, which is 100m away from the node B. Prx2 is the
power of mobile station MS 2, which is 20km away from the
node B.


Prx1  d 2 
   where  the propagatio n coefficien t  3.5
Prx 2  d 1 

3.5
 20000 
   (200) 3.5  113,137,084.9 or 80dB
 100 

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 Near Far Problem
• In order to receive both signals with the same strength at the base station, a mobile
station must be able to control transmitted power within a dynamic range of about
80dB ie. a factor of over 100 million between the two transmitters.
• In order to control the power level at the MS an open loop or closed loop power
control system is employed.
• With the open loop system, the node B transmits a common pilot signal at a
predefined transmitted power, which is broadcast to mobile stations on the paging
channel.
• Based on the received signal strength of the pilot signal, the mobile can estimate
what the received signal strength of its own transmitted signal will be at the node B.
• The MS can thus calculate its own transmitted power in order to react quickly to fast
changes in the signal attenuation.

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 Near Far Problem
• With the closed loop system the node B measures the
received signal to interference ratio (SIR) of a mobile stations
signal over a specific period.
• The node B decides whether a MS needs to increase or
decrease its transmitting power level.
• The power control commands are transmitted as inband
signaling within a CDMA physical channel.
• Increase and decrease of power is done in steps of 1dB.

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