DP Physics (HL)

Topic 11: Electromagnetic Induction

11.2 – Power Generation and Transmission
11.2 – Power Generation & Transmission

1. AC Generators
2. RMS Voltage and Current
3. Transformers
4. Power Transmission
5. Rectifying AC

Oxford Chapter 11.2 – pages 439 to 454

11.2 – Power Generation & Transmission

Equations & Symbols from DP Physics Data Booklet

 11.2.1 – AC Generators
• A generator is a device that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
• An AC generator consists of a coil of wire that is
rotated in a uniform magnetic field.
 11.2.1 – AC Generators
• The four essential components of an AC generator
are the armature, slip rings, brushes, magnets.

Watch: AC Motors and Generators from 1961 – US Army Training (23m 51s)
 11.2.1 – AC Generators
• The loop of wire wound around an iron core called
an armature, which rotates within a magnetic field.

Watch: ScienceMan – Induced Current by AC Generator (6m 12s)

 11.2.1 – AC Generators
• These are the massive copper windings (armature)
used for an AC generator in a nuclear power plant.
 11.2.1 – AC Generators
• The armature is connected to metal rings called slip
rings and carbon brushes, to an external circuit.

Watch: Commutators – Basics on AC and DC Power Generation (4m 01s)

 11.2.1 – AC Generators
Part 1: Beginning of Turn (Angle: 0o)

• At this moment, the top x and bottom y portions of

the coil are moving parallel to the magnetic field.

• No emf is induced in the coil at this time:

Note
• The included emf from an AC cycle
follows a sine curve.
• The change in magnetic flux (normal to
the area) uses a cosine curve.
 11.2.1 – AC Generators
Part 2: First Quarter Turn (Angle: 90o)

• The coil is now rotated from 0o to 90o, and the top of

the coil x and the bottom y are now moving
perpendicular to the magnetic field:

• The induced emf increases to a maximum value:

 11.2.1 – AC Generators
Part 3: Second Quarter Turn (Angle: 180o)

• The coil rotates from 90o to 180o. The parts of the coil
x and y are moving parallel to the magnetic field.

• The induced emf reduces to a minimum (zero):

 11.2.1 – AC Generators
Part 4: Third Quarter Turn (Angle: 270o)

• The coils rotates from 180o to 270o, where points x and y

are moving opposite direction compared to when the
armature was at 90o:

• The induced emf is now a maximum (negative) value:

 11.2.1 – AC Generators
Summary: The Entire AC Cycle  A Sinusoidal Function

Note: The AC generator animation is

from Yenka Physics.
 11.2.1 – AC Generators
• The emf for an AC Generator can be increased by:
1. Increasing rotational speed
– Decrease Period T or Increase Frequency f
2. Increasing magnetic field
3. Increasing the number of turns
4. Increasing the coil area
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Alternating current (ac) generators
Consider the rectangular loop
of wire made to rotate in the fixed
magnetic field shown: B
At this instant:
B B
A
 = BA cos 0º = +BA. 
A bit later  has changed: 
 = BA cos 45º = +0.7BA. A

When  = 90º: A
 = BA cos 90º = 0.
BA
As  continues to increase,
/ Wb

the flux  becomes negative. t/s

A sinusoidal pattern emerges: -
BA
 Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Alternating current (ac) generators
Since  = - / t we see that BA
the induced emf  is the

/ Wb
t/s
inverse slope of the flux.
-
BA
Since the slope of the 0
cosine plot is proportional

/V
t/s
to the sine graph:
  BA sin .
-
0

Note: Relates to differentiation  the instantaneous slope is the emf at time t

 11.2.1 – AC Generators
• Seven Sisters Generating Station is Manitoba
Hydro's largest producer of electricity in Manitoba. 

Selkirk, MB

Note: Mr. Poirier is from Selkirk, Manitoba 

 11.2.1 – AC Generators
• Seven Sisters Dam produce an
average of 990 million kWh of
electricity per year.
• There are 6 turbine generators
turning an average of 133.5
rpm.
• There are seven 115 kV
transmission lines, with five
going to Winnipeg.

Note: Manitoba produces so much hydroelectric energy, that it sells some to the USA.
 11.2.1 – AC Generators
Practice Problem #1
What is the effect of increasing the frequency of the
generator on the induced emf?
 11.2.1 – AC Generators
Practice Problem #1 (Solution)
• If frequency (s-1) increases, then the period (s) decreases.
• If we decrease the period (Δt), then the emf will increase.
• Thus, increasing the frequency of rotation of a generator:
1. Increases the maximum induced emf
2. Decreases the period of the induced emf
 11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
• It’s difficult to measure voltage, current, and power
for alternating current (AC).
• This is because AC has both positive and negative
half-cycles: the average value over one cycle is zero!
 11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
• We can avoid this by considering the instantaneous
power dissipated by a resistor R during AC:

Note: If we use If we use I2, there will be no negative values!

 11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
• A power vs. time graph is always positive
• This is because I2 is always positive
• The P-t graph cycles at twice the frequency of the
current, defined from the median bisector (mean P value)
 11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
• When discussing AC Waveforms, we need to know four
different concepts relating to current, voltage, or power:
1. Peak or Maximum
Denote that:

2. Peak to Peak

3. Average or Median

4. Root-Mean-Square (RMS)
 11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
• The mean power (average) that an AC circuit supplies
and the DC current equivalent can be defined:

• The DC current equivalent for an AC circuit is called

the root mean square (rms) current.
Watch: RMS (Effective) Voltage and Current (14m 55s)
Read: Physics Stack Exchange – Why Do We Use RMS Values?
 11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
• We can also use this method to define the root mean
square (rms) voltage:

Watch: Doc Schuster – AC Circuits and RMS Voltage (16m 10s)

Note: You are not required to prove the relationship between max and rms values.
 11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
• The maximum power and average power dissipated in a
resistor R connected to an AC circuit can be defined as:

• AC Power consumption depends on the rms values, and

are similar to DC power consumption:
P = VI = I 2R = V 2/ R electrical power (DC)

P = VrmsIrms = Irms2R = Vrms2/ R electrical power (AC)

 11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
• The rms current and rms voltage is approximately
70.71% of the peak value:

• Resistance can be represented by either peak or rms

values  they are equivalent!

Do: Worked Examples page 443-444 (Oxford 2014)

11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
Summary of AC Quantities
11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
Practice Question #1
An electrical outlet (“main”) in the UK is rated at 220 V,
which is the root-mean-square (rms) voltage.
Determine the peak voltage from the UK outlet.
11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
Practice Question #1 (Solution)
11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
Practice Question #2
Determine the rms voltage for the triangular AC
waveform shown:

V
V0
t
-V0

Hint: You’ll need to use the area of a V2 vs. t triangle

A = ½ (base) (height)

Note: A sinusoidal waveform would require Integral Calculus to solve.

 11.2.2 – RMS Voltage and Current
Practice Question #2 (Solution)

V • Create a V2 vs. t graph; now all values are positive.

V0 T
• Focus on a single period of the voltage waveform:
t
-V0 • Find the area under the graph, for 3 triangles:

V2 • The mean rectangular height from the area:

V2 T
V02
• Thus, the root-mean-square of the voltage is:
0 t
T/4 T/2 T/4
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• Transformers increase or decrease voltage for our
daily use, or save the world from robot aliens.
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• A transformer consists of an iron core on which two
coils are wound.
• The primary coil has Np turns, and the secondary coil
has Ns turns.

PRIMARY COIL SECONDARY COIL

 11.2.3 – Transformers
• Transformers require a continuously changing
current in the primary coil to provide a continuous
induced voltage.

• Thus, transformers require alternating current (AC)

to be operational.
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• A step-up transformer has more secondary coils that
primary coils (Ns > Np) and induces a greater
secondary voltage.
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• A step-down transformer less secondary coils that
primary coils (Ns < Np) and induces a smaller
secondary voltage.
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• By changing the ratio of turns between each coil
Np:Ns we can increase or decrease the output
voltage.
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• Transformers are similar to gears on a bike:
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• A wall adapter is a step-down transformer:
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• The change in flux is the same for both primary and
secondary coils in the transformer.
• If we can assume no resistance, then the induced
voltage ε is equivalent to the peak voltage V.

If Ns > Np:
• Output voltage is greater than input
• Step-up transformer
If Ns < Np:
• Output voltage is less than input
• Step-down transformer
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• In an ideal transformer, there is no power loss when
moving from the primary to the secondary coil, thus:

• Due to flux linkage, we know that for each loop of

wire the induced emf is proportional to N loops:
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• While step-up transformers can increase the voltage
on the secondary coil, the power cannot increase.
– This would violate the Law of Conservation of Energy!

• We can now define the transformer rule:

 11.2.3 – Transformers

Variable Description Units

Is Output current from secondary coil amperes (A)
IP Input current from primary coil amperes (A)
εs Output induced voltage from secondary coil volts (V)
εp Input induced voltage from primary coil volts (V)
Ns Number of turns or loops of the secondary coil N/A
Np Number of turns or loops of the primary coil N/A
 11.2.3 – Transformers
• Many transformers have an efficiency close to 100%, as
energy losses can be reduced by several methods.
• The efficiency of a transformer is (Review of Topic 2):

Consider: How can transformers be manufactured to reduce energy losses?

 11.2.3 – Transformers
• Methods used to improve transformer efficiency:
1. Laminating the core
– Iron is a good conductor and can create “eddy” currents in the magnet.
– Laminating the core with layers will limit this type of energy loss.
 11.2.3 – Transformers
2. Choosing the core material
– The material should be “soft” so that it can be magnetized
and demagnetized quickly  able to maintain a high flux.
– For example, the “Fe, Co, Ni” ferromagnetic elements

3. Choose the wire in the coils

– Low-resistance wires are used, as any resistance will lead to
heat loss (Plost = I2R)  usually copper wires.

4. The design of the core

– As much flux as possible should interact with the core and
the surface area of the coils of wire.
Do: Worked Examples page 447 (Oxford 2014)
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Transformers – real
EXAMPLE:
To enhance the flux linkage CO
I
between the primary and CO L 1
IL
secondary coils, transformers 2
are constructed using an
iron core.
The primary and secondary
coils are often concentric:
The iron core of a transformer
is laminated (layered and
insulated from other layers) to
reduce the eddy current and
hysteresis current energy losses.
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Transformers – real
For real transformers there are eddy currents and
hysteresis currents, both of
which are created by Faraday’s law due to the magnetic
flux change that is naturally a part of AC circuits. Both of
these currents produce P = I 2R heat loss.
Hysteresis losses (Ihyst  f ) are less significant than
eddy losses (Ieddy  f 2 ).
Eddy currents can be minimized by
lamination of the transformer core.
The laminations are insulated from
one another, thereby eliminating any
complete loops to make a circuit.
Furthermore, each layer has E and I laminations.
 11.2.3 – Transformers
Practice Question #1
What is the ratio of turns for a transformer that
requires a 4-volt output from a 120-volt input source?
 11.2.4 – Power Transmission
• When power is transmitted, some energy is lost due
to heat during this process because of two factors:
1. Heat from Eddy-currents due to transformers.

2. Heat from resistance due to power lines.

Note: Once the diameter of the power cable is determined, the only other way to
reduce power loss is to reduce the current I flowing through the wires.
 11.2.4 – Power Transmission
• To reduce the heat loss due to the resistance of
power lines, step-up transformers are used.
• For example, if we step-up the voltage using a
transformer by a factor of 10:

This would reduce heat loss by a factor of 100!

Note: Greater the voltage, less the current for the same power  less heat loss!
 11.2.4 – Power Transmission
• These high-voltage power lines are very dangerous.
• They are suspended high in the air, and then
converted to a low-voltage at substations in cities.
 11.2.4 – Power Transmission
• The height of power lines depends on the voltage
they carry:
 11.2.4 – Power Transmission
• Electrical substations in communities step-down the
voltage to safe levels for use in homes.
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Transformers in AC electrical power distribution
Observe the simplified electrical grid:

FYI
Power is lost as heat during transformer step-up and -
down of the voltage due to eddy currents (Ieddy  f 2).
Power is lost as heat in the lines during the current
transmission due to internal resistance (P = I 2R).
 11.2.4 – Power Transmission
Practice Question #1 – Part 1
A transmission line made from aluminum (with steel for
support) has a resistivity of 5.2  10-8  m, and is has a
diameter of 10 cm.
a) What is the cross-sectional area of the cable?
b) Determine the total resistance for a 150 km section
of this transmission line.
Consider the Following:
For transmission lines, the gauge of wire is
determined in a trade-off between the cost of
large-diameter wire (low resistance),
and the cost of power lost due to
low-diameter (high resistance) wire.
 11.2.4 – Power Transmission
Practice Question #1 – Part 2
The 150 km transmission line is delivers 270 MW of
electricity to a local community.
c) If the transmission line operates at 138 kV, what is
the current and overall heat loss?
d) If the transmission line were to instead operate at
756 kV, what would be the current and heat loss?
 11.2.4 – Power Transmission
Practice Question #1 – Part 1 & Part 2 (Solutions)
 Investigate!
Transformers and Power Transmission using Simulations

Go to: Circuit Simulation (Falstad)

Do: Transformer Lab Activity (Google Drive)
 11.2.5 – Rectifying AC
• Not all devices can run on alternating current.
• These devices require DC (direct current).
• The process of converting an AC power supply into
DC is called rectification.
• A device that carries out his process is called a
rectifier.
 11.2.5 – Rectifying AC
• There are two types of rectifiers we’ll discuss:
1. Half-wave rectifiers
– Simple circuit using a diode.
– Only one half of the AC cycle is used for DC

2. Full-wave rectifiers
– A more complex circuit.
– Allow use of both halves of the AC cycle
 11.2.5 – Rectifying AC
• A diode is a device that only allows charge to flow
through them in one direction (shown by an arrow).
• The diode is forward biased when conducting.
• The diode is reversed biased when blocking current.
 11.2.5 – Rectifying AC
• You can smooth out the output “ripple” of a half-wave rectifier
by using a capacitor that will be charging and discharging every
cycle.

Note: We will discuss capacitors in more detail in Topic 11.3

 11.2.5 – Rectifying AC
• A full-wave rectifier requires four diodes and
provides continuous current for all parts of the AC
cycle.
• This is required for more DC-sensitive equipment.
 11.2.5 – Rectifying AC
• Full-wave rectifiers can also use capacitors to smooth
out the “ripple” effect, similar to half-wave rectifiers:

Watch: Full Wave Rectifier and Bridge Rectifier Theory (13m 17s)
 11.2.5 – Rectifying AC
Practice Question #1
To draw a full-wave rectifier, all diodes must flow across the
diamond in the same direction for the output (resistive load).
Which diagram(s) A, B, C, or D, are valid full-wave rectifiers?
 Investigate!
Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifiers using Simulations

Using the Falstad circuit simulation, create:

1. A step-up transformer
2. A step-down transformer
3. A half-wave rectifier
4. A half-wave rectifier with capacitor
5. A full-wave rectifier
6. A full-wave rectifier with capacitor

Go to: Circuit Simulation (Falstad)

Do: Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier Lab Activity (Google Drive)
 Practice!

Selected Wikispace Questions

(More are Located on Google Drive)
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Root mean square (rms) values of current and voltage

Power consumption is given by P = VrmsIrms which we

just showed to be (1/2)V0I0.
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Root mean square (rms) values of current and voltage

This is a straight-forward definition of rms current.

Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Root mean square (rms) values of current and voltage

I02 I02

T T
2 2

First we square the values over one period T:

We then find the squared area: I02T/ 2 + I02T/ 2 = I02T.
Then we find the mean height: A / T = I02T / T = I02.
Then we take the square root: I = I0.
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Alternating current (ac) generators

Note from the second formula that if f’ = 2f, then V’ =

2V where V and V’ are peak values.
• Rotational velocity (w) has doubled, so our change
in flux has doubled, which means our emf has
doubled.
Then Vrms = V’ / 2 = 2V / 2 = 2 V.
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Solve AC circuit problems for ohmic resistors

Power dissipation depends of rms values – that is why

we use them after all.
Thus P = Irms2R = I02R / 2 (since Irms = I0 / 2).
If I0’ = 2I0 then
P’ = I0’2R / 2
P’ = (2I0)2R / 2
P’ = 4I02R / 2
P’ = 2I02R.
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Solve AC circuit problems for ohmic resistors

P = VrmsIrms = Irms2R = Vrms2/ R electrical power (AC)

Since Vrms = V0 / 2 then
P = Vrms2/ R = (V0 / 2)2/ R = V02/ (2R).
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Solve problems involving ideal transformers

For an ideal transformer there is no power loss

between primary and secondary coils.
Thus VpIp = VsIs.
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Solve problems involving ideal transformers

V  N 
Vs = 2Vp.
f is not
changed
in a trans-
former.
Topic 11: Electromagnetic induction - AHL
11.2 – Power generation and transmission
Solve problems involving power transmission
 Need More Practice?
1. Mr. Poirier’s PPT Questions
2. Wikispace PPT Questions (Google Drive)
3. Wikispace Problem Sets (Answers in Classroom)
4. Oxford Textbook
5. Oxford Study Guide
6. OSC Guide
7. Grade Gorilla (Website)
8. Website Resource List (Google Drive)