Work Review

- Work = force (N) x distance (m)

- Work is measured in Joules (J) which is a N-m
- For work to be done, the object must move in
the same direction as the force.
- Power = work (J) / time (s)
- Power is measured in watts (W)
 How machines do work
- Machines make work easier by:
1. Changing the amount of force you exert.
2. Changing the distance over which you exert your
force.
3. Changing the direction of your force
- Mechanical Advantage is the number of times
a machine increase the input force on it.
- Output Force is the force the machine exerts
on an object.
- All machines lose work due to friction. The
ones that lose the least amount of work are
said to be very “efficient.”

- Machine Efficiency = Work Output

x 100%
Work Input
 Mechanical Advantage
What do simple machines do for us anyway?
•Transfers our effort force from one place to another. Ex: seesaw
•Multiplies your effort force. Ex: crowbar
•Magnifies speed and distance. Ex: baseball bat
•Changes the direction of the force. Ex: pulley on the flagpole
The number of times a machine multiplies your effort force.
– Example: If you push on the handle of a car jack with a force of 30 lbs
and the jack lifts a 3000 lb car, what is the jack’s mechanical
advantage?
– The jack multiplies your effort force by 100 times.
IMA – Ideal mechanical advantage.
•This is the number of times a machine is designed to multiply your
effort force.
•It is based on measurements of the machine.
•Ignores friction
6 Simple Machines
1. Inclined Plane
Example: Ramp

Length of the incline

Mechanical Advantage =
Height of the incline
 6m

2m

MA = __________
What force pushes an object down an inclined plane?
A cart slides down a frictionless ramp as shown below. Which of
the free-body diagrams below best represents the forces on the cart?
1. The steeper the incline the more force is needed to push the
object up it
2. The more massive the object the more force necessary to push it
up the incline
The steeper the incline the more of the
skiers weight pushes down the incline
*W sin  = mg sin   increases
Normal Force = force
perpendicular to surface
When surface is horizontal the
normal force equals the weight.
FN

FN = w cos

w 

When surface is inclined the perpendicular direction is NOT vertical

so the normal force is only a component of the object’s weight.
 FN 
f


w cos  //
w link

w sin 

 f
FN  F  w sin   f  ma

 F  FN  w cos  0
w cos  
*W sin  pushes it down
w the incline*

w sin 

Summary:
1. Part of the weight ( mg sin) pushes the object down the incline.
2. Part of the weight (mg cos) balances out the normal force.
3. The frictional force acts opposite the motion
4. To push something up an incline the minimum force necessary
is mg cos
If the mass of the block is 10 kg, and the coefficient of kinetic
friction is .2, find the acceleration of the block down the incline.
 2. Wedge
- A device that is thick at one
edge and tapers (gets
smaller) to a thin edge at the
other end.
Example: Log Splitter
- Wedge Mechanical

MA = Length of the wedge

Width of the wedge

3cm

9cm

MA = ______
3. Screw
- An inclined plane (ramp) wrapped around a
central cylinder.
- Mechanical advantage is calculated by dividing the
length of the thread by the length of the screw.
The thread is usually much longer than the screw
which gives them a very high mechanical
advantage.
 Fasteners
External Threads (Male Threads)

•Bolts, Studs, Screws

Internal Threads (Female Threads)

•Nuts, Threaded holes

 Fasteners
Imperial Threaded Fasteners
•UNC – Unified National Coarse.

•UNF – Unified National Fine.

 Fasteners

5/16” UNC X 1 ½” Bolt

Diameter
1 ½” Long
Coarse
 Fasteners

5/16” - 13 X 1 ½” Bolt

13 Threads/inch Total Length

Major Diameter
 Fasteners
Metric Threaded Fasteners
•ISO Metric – International Organization for Standardization
•Most new vehicles have metric fasteners

•M6, M7, M8, M10, M12, M14 …

M8 X 25 X 1
Metric 8mm 25mm long Pitch (threads are 1mm apart)
 Fasteners
Imperial Metric

•Black/Silver in colour •Gold, red, green, yellow, etc.

•Lines on the head •Numbers on the head

•UNC, UNF •ISO metric

•Standard tools (inch) •Metric tools (mm)

•In inches •In millimeters

 Nuts
Hex Nut – Most common on automobiles.

Castle Nut – locks with a cotter pin

Wing Nut – No tool required

Locking Nut – Nylon Patch (center, top)

Lug Nut – Taper face to help center the wheel

Speed Nut – Push-on (mostly screws)

 Screws
Machine Screws –
no nut required ( usually less then ¼”
Passes through one piece and threads into other.

Sheet Metal Screws(self tapping) –

makes its own hole/threads

Set Screw – (allen wrench/no head)

Used for aligning pullies on the shaft.
 Washers
Flat Washer –
Distributes pressure over a wider surface area.

Lock Washer - Prevents the fastener from loosening.

Used at high vibration places.
Bites into the material and the fastener.
 Fasteners
Roll-pins/Spring-pins aligns + locking devices driven into a hole to
Lock a pulley or a spline.
 Fasteners
C - Clips

•External C-Clip

•Internal C-Clip

Snap Ring Pliers

Figure 6-1. Bolt measurements are needed when working.
Study each dimension of both USC and metric bolts
Figure 6-7. Body nuts are specially designed for specific holding applications.
4. Levers
- A lever is a rigid bar that is free to pivot, or
rotate, on a fixed point called a fulcrum.
Input
Resistance
Force

- The mechanical advantage of a lever is

determined by comparing the distance from the
fulcrum your input force is and the distance to
the fulcrum of the resistance. The closer the
resistance is to the fulcrum, the greater the
mechanical advantage.
 3 Classes of Levers
- Your way to remember which lever is which
type is FREE (or FRE). Which ever lever part is
in the middle determines the class of lever.
- Class 1 has the Fulcrum in the middle.
- Class 2 has the Resistance in the
middle.
- Class 3 Has the Effort (input force) in
the middle.
 Class 1 Lever

- Fulcrum in the middle.

- Ex. See-Saw, Paint can opener, can opener,
crowbar, hammer (when pulling a nail).
 Class 2 Lever

- Resistance in the middle.

- Examples: wheelbarrow, bottle opener, door.
 Class 3 Lever

- Effort (input force) in the middle.

- Examples: hockey stick, lacrosse stick, baseball
bat, fishing pole, hammer (when hitting a
nail).
By using the length of the effort arm and the resistance
arm you can find the ideal mechanical advantage.

• Ideal Mechanical Advantage (IMA) – What the

mechanical advantage of a machine would be if
there were no energy lost due to friction

•IMA = length of effort arm = le

length of resist arm lr

Lever

3 1
ft. ft.

MA=Fulcrum to Effort / Fulcrum to Load

MA=3 / 1
MA=3
Solve…

A construction worker uses a board and log as

a lever to lift a
heavy rock. If the input arm is 3 meters long
and the output arm is 0.75 meters long, what is
the mechanical advantage of the lever?
Answer…

MA = 3 / 0.75

MA = 4
Solve…

Sometimes levers are used

to multiply distance. For a
broom, your upper hand is
the fulcrum and your lower
hand provides the input
force.

The mechanical advantage

of this
broom is:
Answer…

MA = 0.3 / 1.2

MA = 0.25
Explain…

A mechanical advantage less than one doesn’t

mean a machine isn’t useful. It just means that
instead of multiplying force, the machine
multiplies distance.

A broom doesn’t push the dust with as much

force as you use to push the broom, but a small
movement of your arm pushes the dust a large
distance.
Solve…

What is the mechanical advantage of a

lever that has an input arm of 3 meters
and an output arm of 2 meters?
Solve…

A lever with an input arm of 2 meters

has a mechanical advantage of 4.
What is the output arm’s length?
Answer…

Set-up:
Input Arm = 2
2/x=4
Output arm = 0
Solve for x by multiplying
MA = 4 both sides by the
denominator which is x.
You get: 2 = 4x

Divide each side by 4 you

get: 2 / 4 which is equal
to .5
5. Wheel and Axle
- 2 circular or cylindrical objects fastened
together that rotate around a common axis
(both rotate around the same thing). The
larger object is the wheel and the smaller one
is the axle.

Wheel Axle
- The mechanical advantage of the wheel and
axle is

Radius of wheel
MA =
Radius of axle

- If the radius of the handle of a screw driver is

1.5cm and the radius of the axle is .3cm, what
is the mechanical advantage?

5
- MA _______
6. Pulley
- A grooved wheel with a rope or
cable wrapped around it.

- The ideal mechanical advantage of a pulley

system is equal to the number of supporting
ropes.
- The last downward pulling rope only changes
the direction of the force.
 1. Fixed Pulley
Pulley
Force

Rope

Fixed Pulley
• Object moves
Weight • Pulley stays in the same spot
• Force applied only on one end of the rope
 Single Fixed Pulley

This pulley provides the user with

Directional Advantage (allows you to pull
down), allowing someone to pull down to
lift the load up.

• Is mechanical advantage provided with this system? No

• The effort needed to lift this load is equal to the weight of the load.

• This is because the load is supported by only 1 rope arm.

• You must also pull an amount of rope equal to the height you wish to lift the load.
How much effort then would it take to
lift this load?

• The farmer must use an

effort equal to the
weight of the load.

• Remember, there is no
mechanical advantage
here…
 2. Movable Pulley
Reaction
Force

Rope

Force

Movable Pulley
• Pulley moves along the rope
Pulley
• Pulley and object move together
•Wheel supports the load
• Rope is attached to something
that does not move Weight
• Reduces the force needed to move the
object
 Single Moveable Pulley

• It requires only ½ the effort to lift the

load because there is more than 1 rope
arm.

• If the load here ways 20 lbs., only 10 lbs.

are needed to lift it.
This pulley
• You must pull twice as much rope to lift
the load to a certain height. system
provides
mechanical
• Example: Pull 2 ft. of rope for each 1 advantage!
foot of height you want to lift the load.
 Pulleys
Parts of a Pulley System

Direction of Force
Notice that the pulleys change the
direction of the applied force.
Types of Pulley.
Pulleys
1. A fixed pulley

A ski lift operates on a fixed pulley system

 Pulleys
2. A moveable pulley - rises and
falls with the load being moved.

Moveable pulley
 3. A block and tackle -
Pulleys
Consists of two or more pulleys
(fixed and moveable).

Block and tackle

 Pulleys
The Pulley Advantage

In this simple pulley system,

the force is equal to the load,
so the Mechanical Advantage is 1:1 or 1.

10 Kg = 100 N

The Mechanical Advantage is calculated like so:

Mechanical Advantage = Load / Effort = 100 N / 100 N
Mechanical Advantage = 1:1 or 1
 Pulleys
The Pulley Advantage

Each side of the rope carries half the load.

Therefore, the force required by the person to
keep the load in equilibrium is also half the load.

This system has a

Mechanical Advantage of 2:1 or 2.

10 Kg = 100 N

The Mechanical Advantage is calculated like so:

Mechanical Advantage = Load / Effort = 100 N / 50 N
Mechanical Advantage = 2:1 or 2
 Pulleys
The Pulley Advantage

This system has a

Mechanical Advantage of 4:1 or 4.

10 Kg = 100 N

The Mechanical Advantage is calculated like so:

Mechanical Advantage = Load / Effort = 100 N / 25 N
Mechanical Advantage = 4:1 or 4
 Pulleys
The Pulley Advantage
This system has a
Mechanical Advantage of 4:1 or 4.

200 Kg = 2000 N

The Mechanical Advantage is calculated like so:

Mechanical Advantage = Load / Effort = 2000 N / 500 N
Mechanical Advantage = 4:1 or 4
 Pulley drives: Pulleys
Using pulleys to transmit motion and force:

Pulleys and Belts Toothed Belt and Pulleys

 Pulley drive calculations: Pulleys
Driver 40 mm Dia.
Driven 70 mm Dia.
280 rev/min
? rev/min

Driven will rotate slower than the driver.

Calculation: -
Diameter of Driver pulley 40
Speed ratio = =
Diameter of Driven pulley 70

40
Speed of Driven pulley = 280 x = 160 rev/min
70

How could you change the direction of rotation of the driven pulley ?
 Gears
A gear is a wheel with teeth on its outer edge.
The teeth of one gear mesh (or engage) with the teeth of another.

Above
Gears meshing or engaged
Driver and Driven
Gears
• Two meshed gears always rotate in
opposite directions.

Spur Gears

Driven gear
Driver gear
 Gears
Idler gear
Driver

Idler gear

Driven
Simple Gear Train
Gears
• Multiple gears can be connected together to form a gear train.

Each shaft carries only

one gear wheel.

Intermediate gears are

known as Idler Gears.
Compound Gear Train Gears
If two gear wheels are mounted
on a common shaft then it’s a
Compound Gear train.

Driver
Compound
Gear

Driven
Gear Ratio Gears
• Generally, the Gear Ratio is calculated by
counting the teeth of the two gears, and
applying the following formula:

Gear ratio = Number of teeth on driven gear

Number of teeth on driver gear
 Gears
Gear Ratio - Calculation

A 100 tooth gear drives a 25

tooth gear. Calculate the gear
ratio for the meshing teeth.

Gear ratio = Number of teeth on driven gear

Number of teeth on driver gear

Gear ratio = driven 25 = 1

driver 100 4
This is written as 1:4
Gear Speed :- Calculation
Gears
A motor gear has 28 teeth
and revolves at 100 rev/min.
The driven gear has 10 teeth.
What is its rotational speed?
28 teeth,
driver
10 teeth,
driven

Speed of driven gear = Number of teeth on driver gear x 100

Number of teeth on driven gear

Speed of driven gear = driver = 28 x 100 = 280 rev/min

driven 10
 Gears
Worm gear and wheel

• The worm gear is always the drive

gear

Worm and wheel

Rack and Pinion
Gears

• The rack and pinion gear is

used to convert between
rotary and linear motion.

Heavy Duty
Car Jack
Bevel gears Gears
• Bevel gears are used to transfer drive through an
angle of 90o.

Bevel Gears
 Important Calculations : -

Work Done = Force x Distance moved in the direction of the force

Total Work Done

Power =
Total Time Taken

Power Output
Efficiency % = X 100
Power Input
Efficiency = Mechanical advantage
Velocity ratio

Friction: - Resists the movement of one surface over another

 SPRINGS
Designed by: Shaun Scott, Vaughn Schiweck, Nathan Cropper
All Equations and Figures From: Shigley & Mischke. Mechanical Engineering Design. Fifth Edition, 2002.

Extension Springs
Compression Springs Note: Loading the Extension Spring creates a shear stress in the spring.
Extension Springs: These must have a way of transferring
Note: compression produces shear stress in the spring
load from a support to the body of the spring. Using Springs
with a hooked end, stress concentration must be considered.
Governing equation: F=k*y This is shown below. The lower spring has a decreased stress
8 F D
3
N 1 concentration because the moment arm is smaller.
y= 1+ ; eqn. 10-8
4 2
d G 2 C
Spring Rate k:

4
d G

Torsion Springs
K= ; eqn. 10-9
3
8 D N

End Conditions: Note: Twisting the Torsion Spring creates a normal stress in the spring.
Helical Torsion Springs:
Helical torsion springs are wound in the same manner as extension
and
compression springs. For torsion springs, the ends are designed to
transmit torque.

Critical Deflection:

Critical deflection in a compression spring: This is when

the deflection becomes too large and the spring buckles.
The equation is shown below.

1 Stress Concentration Factor:

2
C2 r_m
ycr = Lo C1 1- 1- ; eqn. 10-11 K= ; eqn. 10-10
2 r_i
λeff
Stress Concentration Factor on inside of the Spring Ki:
The effective slenderness ratio is given by: 2
4 C -C-1
; λeff = α*L/D; eqn. 10-12 Ki = ; eqn. 10-32
4 C (C - 1)
The chart below describes α, which is the end condition
constant. Bending stress for a round wire torsion spring:
Fatigue Loading Spring Fatigue Loading:
Some springs are subjected to fatigue loading.
It must be determined whether the spring will
Ki 32 F r need to have infinite life or finite life. Helical
σ= ; eqn.10-33
3 springs are never designed to be used in both
π d compression and tension.

Displacement in torsion springs is described in radians. Alternating stress Fa:

E 2 F_max - F_min
C1 = 2 π (E - G ) Fa =
2
; eqn. 10-26
2 (E - G ) eqn. 10-13 C2 = ; eqn. 10-14
2 G+ E 64 F r D N
θ= ; 10-34 Mean stress Fm:
4
F_max + F_min
d E Fm = ; eqn. 10-27
2

< The spring rate, taking into account the curvature of the wire: Stress Amplitude τa:
4 Kb 8 Fm D
τa = ; eqn. 10-28
d E 3
k` = ; 10-37 π d
10.8 D N Mean Stress τm:
Ks 8 Fm D
τm = ; eqn. 10-29
This is the free length of the spring. π d
3
 UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

Springs: supplying restoring force

• When you pull on (stretch) a spring, it
pulls back (top picture)
• When you push on (compress) a
spring, it pushes back (bottom)
• Thus springs present a restoring force:
F = kx
– x is the displacement (in meters)
– k is the “spring constant” in Newtons
per meter (N/m)
– the negative sign means opposite to
the direction of displacement

Spring 2006 87
 Example
• If the springs in your 1000 kg car compress by 10 cm (e.g., when
lowered off of jacks):
– then the springs must be exerting mg = 10,000 Newtons of force
to support the car
– F = kx = 10,000 N, x = 0.1 m
– so k = 100,000 N/m (stiff spring)
• this is the collective spring constant: they all add to this
• Now if you pile 400 kg into your car, how much will it sink?
– 4,000 = (100,000)x, so x = 4/100 = 0.04 m = 4 cm
• Could have taken short-cut:
– springs are linear, so 400 additional kg will depress car an
additional 40% (400/1000) of its initial depression

Spring 2006 UCSD: Physics 8; 2006 88

 Energy Storage in Spring
• Applied force is kΔx (reaction from spring is kΔx)
– starts at zero when Δx = 0
– slowly ramps up as you push
• Work is force times distance
• Let’s say we want to move spring a total distance of x
– would naively think W = kx2
– but force starts out small (not full kx right away)
– works out that W = ½kx2

Spring 2006 UCSD: Physics 8; 2006 89