COVALENT

BONDING
 Chemical Bond
A Quick Review….
• A bond results from the attraction of nuclei
for electrons
– All atoms are trying to achieve a stable octet

• IN OTHER WORDS
– the protons (+) in one nucleus are attracted to
the electrons (-) of another atom
• This is Electronegativity !!
 Three Major Types of Bonding
• Ionic Bonding
– forms ionic compounds
– transfer of valence e-
• Metallic Bonding
• Covalent Bonding
– forms molecules
– sharing of valence e-
– This is our focus this chapter
 Ionic Bonding
• Always formed between metal cations
and non-metals anions
• The oppositely charged ions stick like
magnets
+ -
[METALS ] [NON-METALS ]

Lost e-
Gained e-
 Metallic Bonding
• Always formed between 2 metals (pure
metals)
– Solid gold, silver, lead, etc…
Covalent Bonding
molecules
• Pairs of e- are
shared
between 2 non-
metal atoms to
acquire the electron
configuration of a
noble gas.
 Covalent Bonding
• Occurs between nonmetal atoms which need to gain
electrons to get a stable octet of electrons or a filled outer
shell.

no
nm
et
a ls
 Drawing molecules (covalent)
using Lewis Dot Structures
• Symbol represents the KERNEL of the atom (nucleus and inner
electrons)
• dots represent valence electrons
• The ones place of the group number indicates the number of
valence electrons on an atom.
• Draw a valence electron on each side (top, right, bottom, left)
before pairing them.
Always remember atoms are trying
to complete their valence shell!
“2 will do but 8 is great!”
The number of electrons the atoms needs is the
total number of bonds they can make.
Ex. … H? O? F? N? Cl? C?
one two one three one four
Draw Lewis Dot Structures
You may represent valence electrons
from different atoms with the
following symbols x, ,

x
H or H or H
 Covalent bonding
• The atoms form a covalent bond by
sharing their valence electrons to get a
stable octet of electrons.(filled valence
shell of 8 electrons)
• Electron-Dot Diagrams of the atoms are
combined to show the covalent bonds
• Covalently bonded atoms form
MOLECULES
 Methane CH4
• This is the finished Lewis dot structure
• Every atom has a filled valence shell

How did we get here?

OR
General Rules for Drawing Lewis Structures

• All valence electrons of the atoms in Lewis structures must

be shown.
• Generally each atom needs eight electrons in its valence
shell (except Hydrogen needs only two electrons and
Boron needs only 6).
• Multiple bonds (double and triple bonds) can be formed by
C, N, O, P, and S.
• Central atoms have the most unpaired electrons.

• Terminal atoms have the fewest unpaired electrons.

• When carbon is one of you atoms, it will
always be in the center

• Sometimes you only have two atoms, so

there is no central atom
Cl2 HBr H2 O2 N2 HCl

• We will use a method called ANS

(Available, Needed, Shared) to help us draw
our Lewis dot structures for molecules
EXAMPLE 1: Write the Lewis structure for H2O where oxygen is the central atom.
Step 1: Determine the total number of electrons available for bonding. Because only valence
electrons are involved in bonding we need to determine the total number of valence electrons.
AVAILABLE valence electrons:
Electrons available
2H Group 1 2(1) = 2
O Group 6 6
8
There are 8 electrons available for bonding.

Step 2: Determine the number of electrons needed by

each atom to fill its valence shell.
NEEDED valence electrons
Electrons needed
2H each H needs 2 2(2) = 4
O needs 8 8
12
There are 12 electrons needed.
 Step 3: More electrons are needed then there are available. Atoms therefore make bonds by sharing
electrons. Two electrons are shared per bond.

SHARED (two electrons per bond)

# of bonds = (# of electrons needed – # of electrons available) = (N-A) = (12 – 8) = 2 bonds.

2 2 2

Draw Oxygen as the central atom. Draw the Hydrogen atoms on either side of the oxygen atom.
Draw the 2 bonds that can be formed to connect the atoms.

OR

Step 4: Use remaining available electrons to fill valence shells for each atom. All atoms need 8 electrons
to fill their valence shell (except hydrogen needs only 2 electrons to fill its valence shell, and
boron only needs 6). For H2O there are 2 bonds, and 2 electrons per bond.
# available electrons remaining = # electrons available – # electrons shared = A-S = 8 – 2(2) = 4 extra e-s
Sometimes multiple bonds must be formed to get
the numbers of electrons to work out
• DOUBLE bond
– atoms that share two e- pairs (4 e-)

O O
• TRIPLE bond
– atoms that share three e- pairs (6 e-)

N N
Step 3: SHARED (two electrons per bond)

# of bonds = (N – A) = (20 – 12) = 4 bonds.

2 2

Draw carbon as the central atom (Hint: carbon is always the center when it is present!). Draw the
Hydrogen atoms and oxygen atom around the carbon atom. Draw 2 bonds of the 4 bonds that can
be formed to connect the H atoms. Draw the remaining 2 bonds to connect the O atom (oxygen
can form double bonds)

Step 4: Use remaining available electrons to fill valence shell for each atom.
# electrons remaining = Available – Shared = A – S = 12 – 4(2) = 4 extra e-s
 Let’s Practice
H2
A=1x2=2
N=2x2=4
S = 4 - 2= 2 ÷ 2 = 1 bond
Remaining = A – S = 2 – 2 = 0
DRAW
 Activity:
• BCl3
• CO2
• NH3
• CH
 #1
CH4
A = C 4x1 = 4 H 1x4 = 4 4 + 4 = 8
N = C 8x1 = 8 H 2x4 = 8 8 + 8 = 16
S = (A-N)16 – 8 = 8 ÷2 = 4 bonds
Remaining = A-S = 8 – 8 = 0
DRAW
 #2
NH3
A = N 5x1 = 5 H 1x3 = 3 = 8
N = N 8x1 = 8 H 2x3 = 6 = 14
S = 14-8 = 6 ÷2 = 3 bonds
Remaining = (A-S) 8 – 6 = 2
DRAW
 #3
CO2
A = C 4x1 = 4 O 6x2 = 12 = 16
N = C 8x1 = 8 O 8x2 = 16 = 24
S = 24-16 = 8 ÷ 2 = 4 bonds
Remaining = (A-S) 16 – 8 = 8 not bonding
DRAW – carbon is the central atom
 #4
BCl3 boron only needs 6 valence electrons, it is an exception.
A = B 3 x 1 = 3 Cl 7 x 3 = 21 = 24
N = B(6) x 1 = 6 Cl 8 x 3 = 24 = 30
S = 30-24 = 6 ÷ 2 = 3 bonds
Remaining = 24 – 6 = 18 e- not bonding
DRAW
 Naming Molecular
Compounds (Covalent)

Type III

Nonmetal + nonmetal
The Covalent Bond
Sharing of electrons
 Properties of Molecular or Covalent Compounds

• Made from 2 or more non­metals

• Consist of molecules not ions
 Molecular Formulas
Show the kinds and numbers of
atoms present in a molecule of
a compound.

Molecular Formula = H2O

 Structural formula

H N H
H
Molecular formula NH3
 Molecular Formulas
• Examples

• CO2

• SO3

• N2O5
 Rules for Naming
Molecular compounds
• The most “metallic” nonmetal
element is written first (the one
that is furthest left)
• The most non­metallic of the two
nonmetals is written last in the
formula
• NO2 not O2N
• All binary molecular compounds end
in -­ide
 Molecular compounds
• Ionic compounds use charges to determine the
chemical formula
• The molecular compound‘s name tells you the
number of each element in the chemical
formula.
• Uses prefixes to tell you the quantity of each
element.
• You need to memorize the prefixes !
 Prefixes
• 1 mono­
• 2 di­
• 3 tri­
• 4 tetra­
• 5 penta­ Memorize!
• 6 hexa­
• 7 hepta­
• 8 octa­
• 9 nona­
• 10
deca­
More Molecular Compound Rules
• If there is only one of the first element do
not put (prefix) mono­
• Example: carbon monoxide (not monocarbon monoxide)

• If the nonmetal starts with a vowel, drop

the vowel ending from all prefixes except
di and tri
• monoxide not monooxide
• tetroxide not tetraoxide
Molecular compounds

N2O5
Molecular compounds

N2O5
di
 Molecular compounds

N2O5

dinitrogen
 Molecular compounds

N2O5

dinitrogen penta
 Molecular compounds

N2O5

dinitrogen pentaoxide
Molecular compound Naming Practice

N2O5

dinitrogen pentaoxide
 Molecular compounds

N2O5

dinitrogen
pentoxide
dinitrogen pentoxide
Molecular
compounds Sulfur
trioxide
Molecular compounds
Sulfur trioxide

S
Molecular compounds
Sulfur trioxide

S
Molecular compounds
Sulfur trioxide

S O3
Molecular
compounds Sulfur
trioxide
S O3
SO3
Molecular compounds

CCl4
Molecular compounds

CCl4

monocarbon
Molecular compounds

CCl4

monocarbon
Molecular compounds

CCl4
carbon
Molecular compounds

CCl4
carbon tetra
Molecular compounds

CCl4
carbon tetrachloride
Molecular compounds

CCl4
carbon tetrachloride

Carbon tetrachloride
 Common Names

H2 O

NH3
Common
Names
H2 O Water

NH3 Ammonia
 Bond Types

3 Possible Bond Types:

• Ionic
• Non-Polar Covalent
• Polar Covalent
Use Electronegativity Values to
Determine Bond Types
• Ionic bonds
– Electronegativity (EN) difference > 2.0
• Polar Covalent bonds
– EN difference is between .21 and 1.99
• Non-Polar Covalent bonds
– EN difference is < .20
– Electrons shared evenly in the bond
 Ionic Character
“Ionic Character” refers to a bond’s
polarity
–In a polar covalent bond,
• the closer the EN difference is to 2.0,
the more POLAR its character
• The closer the EN difference is to .20,
the more NON-POLAR its character
 How to get the
Electronegativity of a
Compound?
• SO2
EN2nd- EN1st Polar Covalent bonds

3.5-2.5 = 1
 Polar vs. Nonpolar
MOLECULES
• Sometimes the bonds within a
molecule are polar and yet the
molecule itself is non-polar
 Nonpolar Molecules
• Molecule is Equal on all sides
– Symmetrical shape of molecule
(atoms surrounding central atom are
the same on all sides)
H
Draw Lewis dot first and
see if equal on all sides
H C H
H
 Polar Molecules
• Molecule is Not Equal on all sides
– Not a symmetrical shape of molecule
(atoms surrounding central atom are
not the same on all sides)

Cl
H C H
H
 Polar Molecule

+
H Cl  -

Unequal Sharing of Electrons

Non-Polar Molecule

Cl Cl
Equal Sharing of Electrons
Polar Molecule

H Cl
B
H
Not symmetrical
Non-Polar Molecule

H H
B
H Symmetrical
Water is a POLAR molecule

ANY time there are unshared pairs

of electrons on the central atom, the
molecule is POLAR
H H
O
 Making sense of the polar
non-polar thing
BONDS MOLECULES

Non-polar Polar Non-polar Polar

EN difference EN difference Symmetrical Asymmetrical
0 - .2 .21 – 1.99
OR
Unshared e-s on
Central Atom
5 Shapes of Molecules
you must know!
(memorize)
• VSEPR – Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion Theory
– Covalent molecules assume geometry
that minimizes repulsion among electrons
in valence shell of atom
– Shape of a molecule can be predicted
from its Lewis Structure
 1. Linear (straight line)
Ball and stick
model OR

Molecule geometry X A X
OR

A X
Shared Pairs = 2 Unshared Pairs = 0
 2. Trigonal Planar
Ball and stick
model

Molecule geometry X
A
X X
Shared Pairs = 3 Unshared Pairs = 0
 3.Tetrahedral
Ball and stick Molecule geometry
model

Shared Pairs = 4 Unshared Pairs = 0

 4. Bent
Ball and stick
model

..
Lewis Diagram A
X X

Shared Pairs = 2 Unshared Pairs = 1 or 2

 5.Trigonal Pyramidal
Ball and stick Molecule geometry
model

Shared Pairs = 3 Unshared Pairs = 1

 Intramolecular attractions
• Attractions
within or inside
molecules, also
known as bonds.
– Ionic
– Covalent Roads within a state
– metallic
 Intermolecular attractions
• Attractions between
molecules
– Hydrogen “bonding”
• Strong attraction
between special polar
molecules (F, O, N, P)
– Dipole-Dipole
• Result of polar covalent
Bonds
– Induced Dipole
(Dispersion Forces)
• Result of non-polar
covalent bonds
 More on intermolecular forces
Hydrogen “Bonding”
• STRONG
intermolecular force - -
– Like magnets
• Occurs ONLY + + - + +

between H of one
molecule and N, O,
F of another
+ +
molecule
Hydrogen
“bond”
Dipole-Dipole Interactions
– WEAK intermolecular force
– Bonds have high EN differences
forming polar covalent molecules,
but not as high as those that result
in hydrogen
bonding. .21<EN<1.99
– Partial negative and partial
positive charges slightly attracted
to each other.
– Only occur between polar
covalent molecules
 Why does Hydrogen
“bonding” occur?
• Nitrogen, Oxygen and Fluorine
– are small atoms with strong nuclear
charges
• powerful atoms
– Have very high electronegativities,
these atoms hog the electrons in a bond
– Create very POLAR molecules
Dipole-Dipole Interactions
 Induced Dipole Attractions

– VERY WEAK intermolecular force

– Bonds have low EN differences EN < .20
– Temporary partial negative or positive charge
results from a nearby polar covalent molecule.
– Only occur between NON-POLAR & POLAR
molecules
• London Dispersion Forces (LDF)
 BOND STRENGTH
Strongest

 IONIC
intramolecular
COVALENT


Hydrogen
Dipole-Dipole
intermolecular
Induced Dipole
Weakest
 Intermolecular Forces
affect chemical properties
• For example, strong intermolecular
forces cause high Boiling Point
– Water has a high boiling point compared
to many other liquids
APPLICATION OF IMFA
Medical Devices
Construction Materials
Sports Equipment
Electronic Devices
 The Chemistry of Carbon,
The Chemistry of Life!
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
carbon containing molecules

HYDROCARBONS
Contain only carbon and
hydrogen
HYDROXYL GROUP
carbon containing molecules
a functional group with the
chemical formula −OH and
composed of one oxygen atom
covalently bonded to one
hydrogen atom.
FUNCTIONAL GROUP
Bonded to a parent molecule
BIOMOLECULES
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION…
We will be repeating these ALL year!

Yesterday:

Atoms  Molecules  Macromolecules…

Today we will dig into the four macromolecules

that are essential for life to exist.
What are the 4 biomolecules?
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Nucleic Acids
• Proteins

WE TYPICALLY GET BIOMOLECULES FROM FOOD…

THIS IS WHY WE MUST EAT IN THE FIRST PLACE!
THE BIOMOLECULES SERVE TO KEEP ORGANISMS ALIVE.
#1: CARBOHYDRATES
ARE SUGARS!

We get 4 kilocalories per gram

of carb that we eat!
 What are Carbohydrates?
Most common organic molecule
Function: Primary energy source our body needs
Elements present: C, H, O (1:2:1 ratio)
IMPORTANT!
Monomer (building block):
Monosaccharides (Glucose is most common)
Polymer: Polysaccharides (starch, Glycogen,
Cellulose, Chitin)
Examples: Chocolate, Bread, Pasta, Fruits,
Vegetables (ALL FROM PLANTS!!!)
Sugars that make up Carbs
Single sugar: monosaccharide
 Ex: glucose , fructose (in fruits)
2 monosaccharides: disaccharide
 Ex: maltose, sucrose
3+ monosaccharides: polysaccharide
 Ex: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, and Chitin

I am a
polysaccharide!
 Disaccharides
Composed of two monosaccharides unit
joined together through a process called
condensation reaction. Disaccharides are
sweet and soluble in water.
Examples:
1. Lactose (Galactose and Glucose) –
the milk sugar, a great source of nutrients for
infants. It is used in many processed dairy
products.
2. Sucrose (Glucose and Fructose) – the
table sugar, is used as sweeteners to make
candies, ice cream, cakes and cookies and
preserved foods.
3. Maltose (Glucose and Glucose) – the
beer sugar, least sweet and it is not a
common sweetener
Types of polysaccharides
Starch:
 Used for energy storage in plants
 Potatoes, pasta and rice are starches
 They provide a quick form of energy for the
body
I am
formed in
the Liver!

Glycogen:
• Used for energy storage in animals
More Polysaccharides
Cellulose:
• Provides structural
support in plants (found
in the cell wall)
GIVES US FIBER!!!

Chitin:
• Found in exoskeletens of
arthropods (insects,
spiders)
• Found in cell wall of
some fungi
Structure of Carbohydrates
• Remember: Elements are C, H, and O
• Primarily in a Ring shape (but not always)
Take a minute to find the word that
does NOT belong. Raise your hand,
do not shout out!
#2: LIPIDS
ARE FATS

We get 9 kcals per gram

Of fat that we consume.
 Lipids
Function: Store energy, Insulates
your body, and make up the cell
membrane!
Elements: C-H-O

Monomer (Building blocks):

glycerol & 3 fatty acids
Polymer: Phospholipids, triglycerides

Example: Steroids, cholesterol, fats,

Oils, Nuts, Waxes, and make up part
of the cell membrane!
 Lipids
Lipids are Hydrophobic (water fearing) and do not
dissolve in water!
Important!
• Lipids can be:
• Saturated: The bonds between all the carbons are
single bonds.
• Solid at room temperature
• Mainly animal fats (bacon grease, lard)

• Unsaturated: There is at least one double or triple

bond between carbons present.
• Liquid at room temperature
• Mainly plant based fats (olive oil, peanut oil) as well as oily
fish (Tuna, Sardines)
 Lipid Structure
 Remember:
Elements
present are
C, H, O
 Long strands Saturated Fats
of Carbon
and
Hydrogen
Unsaturated Fats
CALLED
HYDROCARBONS!
Take a minute to find the word that
does NOT belong. Raise your hand,
do not shout out!
#3: PROTEINS
BUILD US

We get 4 kcals per gram

Of protein that we consume.
Proteins
• Function of proteins
• Transport molecules in and out of the cell
• Control the speed of chemical reactions
• Used for growth and repair

Proteins make up the structure of living things…

Hair, nails, skin, bones, muscle, etc are all built by protein!
Proteins NITROGEN IS PRESENT, NOW!
 Elements: C-H-O-N
 Monomer (Building Block):
amino acids (20 different
ones!)
 Polymer: proteins (tons)

 Examples of proteins:
hemoglobin in red blood
cells, albumin in eggs,
enzymes that control
reactions in the body, and
antibodies
 Found in: fish, eggs, meat
Protein Structure
 Remember: Elements are C, H, O, and N
 “R” groups represent one of the 20 Amino
Acids! (so, each amino acid has something
different in that spot)
Why are amino acids important?
• When groups of amino acids are joined
together a protein is formed
• There are 20 kinds of amino acids
• They consist of a carboxyl group (COOH)
and an amino group NH2
• Peptide bonds form between amino acids
(polypeptide = many peptide bonds = protein!)
Take a minute to find the word that
does NOT belong. Raise your hand,
do not shout out!
#4: NUCLEIC ACIDS

These biomolecules are not

necessarily from food
Nucleic acids
Function:
• Provide our genetic information
• Holds the instructions to make proteins.
Elements: C-H-O-N-P
Monomer : nucleotides
• A nucleotide is made up of:
• Sugar
• Phosphate
• Nitrogen Base: A, T, G, C, or U
Polymer: DNA, RNA and ATP
Energy
Genetic
carrier
code! Recipe for
proteins
Structure of Nucleic Acid
 Take a minute to find the word
that does NOT belong. Raise your
hand, do not shout out!
The End