Concept of coordinate systems and map

projections
Objectives

- Understand the concept of

coordination system
- Understand the map projections

Why it is important?
 Coordinates
 Features
on spherical surfaces are not easy
to measure
 Features on planes are easy to measure and
calculate
 distance
 angle
 area
 Coordinate systems provide a measurement
framework
 Types of Coordinate Systems
• (1) Global Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z) for
the whole earth
• (2) Geographic coordinates (, z)
• (3) Projected coordinates (x, y, z) on a local
area of the earth’s surface
• The z-coordinate in (1) and (3) is defined
geometrically; in (2) the z-coordinate is
defined gravitationally
Global Cartesian Coordinates (x,y,z)
Z
Greenwich
Meridian

O
• Y

X
Equator
 Y

(+X,+Y)
(-X,+Y)

(-X,-Y) (+X,-Y)
Global Positioning System (GPS)
• 24 satellites in orbit around the earth
• Each satellite is continuously radiating a
signal at speed of light, c
• GPS receiver measures time lapse, t, since
signal left the satellite, r = ct
• Position obtained by intersection of radial
distances, r, from each satellite
• Differential correction improves accuracy
You are here

8
Global Positioning using Satellites

r2 r3

Number Object
r4
of Defined
Satellites Sphere r1
1 Circle
2 Two Points
3 Single Point
4
Geographic Coordinates (, z)
• Latitude () and Longitude () defined
using an ellipsoid, an ellipse rotated about
an axis
• Elevation (z) defined using geoid, a surface
of constant gravitational potential
• Earth datums define standard values of the
ellipsoid and geoid
 Y

X - Equator.
Y - Prime Meridian
Lat/Long are the coordinate of point on earth.
What are the latitude and longitude directions of
Adama ?
 Coordinates
Lat/long system measures angles on
spherical surfaces

60º east of PM
55º north of equator
Lat/long values are NOT Cartesian (X,
Y) coordinates

 constant angular deviations do not have

constant distance deviations

•1°of longitude at the equator  1° of longitude

near the poles
 Coordinate systems

Examples of different coordinate/projection

systems

 State Plane

 Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

 Coordinate systems
State Plane
 Codified in 1930s
 Use of numeric zones for shorthand
 SPCS (State Plane Coordinate System)
 FIPS (Federal Information Processing System)

 Uses one or more of 3 different projections:

 Lambert Conformal Conic (east-west orientation )
 Transverse Mercator (north-south orientation)

 Oblique Mercator (nw-se or ne-sw orientation)

 Coordinate systems
Universal Transverse Mercator
(UTM)
 Based on the Transverse Mercator
projection
 60 zones (each 6° wide)
 false eastings
 Y-0 set at south pole or equator
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)

Washington state is in Zones 10 & 11

 Coordinate systems

Every place on earth falls in a particular zone

 Latitude and Longitude

Latitude - distance from the equator along the Y axis

Longitude - distance from the prime meridian along the X axis.

.
 Exercise
In Which Quarter These Lon/Lats Are Located

 43 °N, 21°E
 78°S, 111°W
 4°S, 23°E
 15°N, 29°E
 Geodesy, Map Projections and
Coordinate Systems
• Geodesy - the shape of the earth and
definition of earth datums
• Map Projection - the transformation of a
curved earth to a flat map
• Coordinate systems - (x,y) coordinate
systems for map data
 Learning Objectives:
By the end of this class you should know:

• the role of geodesy as a basis for earth datums

• the basic types of map projection
• the properties of common map projections
• the terminology of common coordinate
systems
• how to use ArcGIS to convert between
coordinate systems
Datums
Representations of the Earth
Mean Sea Level is a surface of constant
gravitational potential called the Geoid
Sea surface Ellipsoid

Earth surface

Geoid
 Datums
A system that allows us to place a coordinate
system on the earth’s surface

Initial point
Secondary point
Model of the earth
Known geoidal separation at the
initial point
 Horizontal Earth Datums
• An earth datum is defined by an ellipse and
an axis of rotation
• NAD27 (North American Datum of 1927)
uses the Clarke (1866) ellipsoid on a non
geocentric axis of rotation
• NAD83 (NAD,1983) uses the GRS80
ellipsoid on a geocentric axis of rotation
• WGS84 (World Geodetic System of 1984)
uses GRS80, almost the same as NAD83
 Projecting spatial data sets
Used for going between projections
Source data sources may not be compatible

UTM 36

UTM 34

Lake Victoria is not in central Africa

 Projecting spatial data sets
• Used for going between projections
• Data sets are now compatible

both are
now UTM 34

Lake Victoria really is in east Africa

 Matching I’m using WGS84

Datums
I use GPS for all
my mapping.
I’m using
NAD83(1986)
Revenge of the
4.3Shift
ft

31
 Shape of the Earth

We think of the It is actually a spheroid,

earth as a sphere slightly larger in radius at
the equator than at the poles
The Geoid
The Geoid = the particular equipotential surface

that coincides with the mean sea level

 Over the oceans, the geoid is the ocean

surface (assuming no currents, waves, etc)

Over the continents, the geoid is not the topographic surface (its location can be

calculated from gravity measurements)

Geoid “undulations”are caused by the distribution of mass in the Earth

Geoid = the “figure” of Earth (a “potatoid”…?)

 Elements of Geodesy

The shape of the Earth/An ellipsoid

The shape of the Earth can be

mathematically represented as an

Ellipsoid defined by:

–Semi-major axis = equatorial radius = a

–Semi-minor axis = polar radius = c

–Flattening (the relationship between

equatorial and polar radius): f = (a-c)/a

–Eccentricity: e2= 2f-f2

Reference ellipsoids

•Many different reference

ellipsoids have been

defined and are in use!

•WGS-84: best-fit ellipsoid

to a smooth averaged Earth

surface
Spatial Reference = Datum +

Projection +
Coordinate system
• For consistent analysis the spatial reference of
data sets should be the same.
• ArcGIS does projection on the fly so can display
data with different spatial references properly if
they are properly specified.
• ArcGIS terminology
– Define projection. Specify the projection for some
data without changing the data.
– Project. Change the data from one projection to
another.
Definition of Elevation
Elevation Z
P
z = zp
•
z = 0 Land Surface

Mean Sea level = Geoid

Elevation is measured from the Geoid

 Vertical Earth Datums
• A vertical datum defines elevation, z
• NGVD29 (National Geodetic Vertical
Datum of 1929)
• NAVD88 (North American Vertical Datum
of 1988)
• takes into account a map of gravity
anomalies between the ellipsoid and the
geoid
 Geodesy and Map Projections
• Geodesy - the shape of the earth and
definition of earth datums
• Map Projection - the transformation of a
curved earth to a flat map
• Coordinate systems - (x,y) coordinate
systems for map data
 Earth to Globe to Map

Map Scale: Map Projection:

Representative Fraction Scale Factor

= Globe distance Map distance

=
Earth distance Globe distance
(e.g. 1:24,000) (e.g. 0.9996)
Geographic and Projected Coordinates

() (x, y)
Map Projection
 Types of Projections
• Conic (Albers Equal Area, Lambert
Conformal Conic) - good for East-West
land areas
• Cylindrical (Transverse Mercator) - good
for North-South land areas
• Azimuthal (Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area)
- good for global views
Conic Projections
(Albers, Lambert)
 Cylindrical Projections
(Mercator)

Transverse

Oblique
Azimuthal
(Lambert)
Albers Equal Area Conic Projection
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
Universal Transverse Mercator Projection
Lambert Azimuthal Equal Area Projection
 Projections Preserve Some
Earth Properties
• Area - correct earth surface area (Albers
Equal Area) important for mass balances
• Shape - local angles are shown correctly
(Lambert Conformal Conic)
• Direction - all directions are shown correctly
relative to the center (Lambert Azimuthal
Equal Area)
• Distance - preserved along particular lines
• Some projections preserve two properties
 Projection and Datum

Two datasets can differ in both the

projection and the datum, so it is
important to know both for every
dataset.
 Geodesy and Map Projections
• Geodesy - the shape of the earth and
definition of earth datums
• Map Projection - the transformation of a
curved earth to a flat map
• Coordinate systems - (x,y) coordinate
systems for map data
 Coordinate Systems
• Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) - a
global system developed by the US Military
Services
• State Plane Coordinate System - civilian
system for defining legal boundaries
• Texas Centric Mapping System - a
statewide coordinate system for Texas
 State Plane Coordinate System
• Defined for each State in the United States
• East-West States (e.g. Texas) use Lambert
Conformal Conic, North-South States (e.g.
California) use Transverse Mercator
• Texas has five zones (North, North Central,
Central, South Central, South) to give accurate
representation
• Greatest accuracy for local measurements
 Texas Centric Mapping System
• Designed to give State-wide coverage of
Texas without gaps
• Lambert Conformal Conic projection with
standard parallels 1/6 from the top and 1/6
from bottom of the State
• Adapted to Albers equal area projection for
working in hydrology
 ArcGIS Reference Frames
• Defined for a feature
dataset in ArcCatalog
• Coordinate System
– Projected
– Geographic
• X/Y Domain
• Z Domain
• M Domain
 Coordinate Systems
• Geographic
coordinates (decimal
degrees)
• Projected coordinates
(length units, ft or
meters)
 X/Y Domain
(Max X, Max Y) Long integer max value
of 231 = 2,147,483,645

(Min X, Min Y)

Maximum resolution of a point = Map Units / Precision

e.g. map units = meters, precision = 1000, then
maximum resolution = 1 meter/1000 = 1 mm on the ground
ArcGIS .prj files
 How to choose projections
• Generally, follow the lead of people who
make maps of the area you are interested in.
Look at maps!
• State plane is a common projection for all
states in the USA
– Conic and UTM variants
• UTM is commonly used and is a good choice
when the east-west width of area does not
exceed 6 degrees
 UTM zones
Numbered 1 through 60 from Longitude 180
 Summary Concepts
• The spatial reference of a dataset comprises
datum, projection and coordinate system.
• For consistent analysis the spatial reference
of data sets should be the same.
• ArcGIS does projection on the fly so can
display data with different spatial references
properly if they are properly specified.
• ArcGIS terminology
– Define projection. Specify the projection for
some data without changing the data.
– Project. Change the data from one projection
to another.
 Summary Concepts (Cont.)
• Two basic locational systems: geometric or
Cartesian (x, y, z) and geographic or
gravitational (, z)
• Mean sea level surface or geoid is
approximated by an ellipsoid to define an
earth datum which gives (and distance
above geoid gives (z)
 Summary Concepts (Cont.)
• To prepare a map, the earth is first reduced
to a globe and then projected onto a flat
surface
• Three basic types of map projections: conic,
cylindrical and azimuthal
• A particular projection is defined by a
datum, a projection type and a set of
projection parameters
 Summary Concepts (Cont.)
• Standard coordinate systems use particular
projections over zones of the earth’s surface
• Types of standard coordinate systems:
UTM, State Plane, Texas State Mapping
System, Standard Hydrologic Grid
• Spatial Reference in ArcGIS 9 requires
projection and map extent