Chapter 4 Aqueous Reactions and Solutions

Sec. 4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions

Electrolytic Properties – electrical conductivity (electricity flow)

is used to characterize an aqueous (deionized water) solution.

There are three categories of electrolytes:

1. Strong electrolytes
2. Weak electrolytes
3. Nonelectrolytes

Each type has its own characteristics.

 Type of Electrolytes
.
 Type of Electrolytes
Strong electrolyte characteristics:
compound completely broke up into ions
electricity flowing strongly
bright light
Ex Ba(OH)2 (aq) ---------> Ba2+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq)

Who are the strong electrolytes? Soluble ionic compounds and

strong acids.
 Type of Electrolytes
Weak electrolyte characteristics:
A small amount of ions present
electricity flowing weakly
dim light

Ex Mg(OH)2 (s) --------> Mg(OH)2 (s) + Mg2+ (aq) + 2 OH- (aq)

only a small amount of ions

Who are the weak electrolytes? Insoluble ionic compounds and

weak acids.
 Type of Electrolytes
Nonelectrolyte characteristics:
No ions present
No electricity flowing
Light is off

Ex C12H22O11 (s) ---------> C12H22O11 (aq)

Who are the nonelectrolytes? Covalent compounds.

dissolved and in solution

 Dissolving in Water
For ionic compounds, water moves in between ions to separate
them. For covalent compounds, water moves in between
molecules to separate them.
 Sec. 4.2 Precipitation Reactions
Ex We will combine aqueous solutions of Pb(NO3) 2 (aq) and KI (aq):
 Precipitation Reactions
Result: a yellow precipitate formed!

Pb(NO3) 2 (aq) + KI (aq) -----> yellow precipitate

Precipitate – solid product formed from two aqueous solutions.

Precipitation reactions are one type of Double Displacement

reaction. The other type of Double Displacement reaction is a
neutralization (acid/base) reaction.
 Predicting Solubility
The solubility chart identifies if an ionic compound (salt) is
soluble or insoluble.

Soluble ionic compounds completely breaks up into ions.

Compounds that are soluble get the phase label, (aq).

Insoluble ionic compounds very marginally breaks up into ions.

Compounds that are insoluble get the phase label, (s).
 Solubility Chart
The solubility chart is used to identify if a salt is soluble or
insoluble.
 Solubility Chart
Using the solubility chart, are the following salts soluble or insoluble?

Ex soluble (aq)

Ex insoluble (s)

Ex insoluble (s)

Ex soluble (aq)
 Double Displacement Rxns
There are two types of Double Displacement
reactions which follow the same steps and have
the same pattern:

Precipitation
Neutralization (Acid/Base)
 Double Displacement Rxns
Steps to predict the products of a double displacement rxn:

1. Breakup reactant into ions (show charges).

2. Switch the cations.
3. Criss-Cross method to get correct formula for products.
4. Check solubility chart to get phase labels.

Was a precipitate formed?

 Double Displacement Rxns
Ex Ba(NO3)2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) -------->

BaSO4 + NaNO3
BaSO4 + NaNO3 are the products!

Check solubility chart, BaSO4 is insoluble and NaNO3 is soluble.

Products are BaSO4 (s) and NaNO3 (aq).

BaSO4 (s) is the precipitate!
 Double Displacement Rxns
Ex K2CO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) -------->

KCl + Na2CO3
KCl + Na2CO3 are the products!

Check solubility chart, both KCl + Na2CO3 are soluble.

Products are KCl (aq) + Na2CO3 (aq).
No precipitate formed from these two aqueous solutions.
No precipitate = no reaction.
 Double Displacement Rxns
Now, write the balance molecular equation for a double displacement reaction.

Steps to predict the products of a double displacement rxn:

1. Breakup reactant into ions (show charges).

2. Switch the cations.
3. Criss-Cross method to get correct formula for products.
4. Rewrite the reactants, arrow and products.
5. Balance the reaction by adding coefficients.
6. Check solubility chart to get phase labels.
 Double Displacement Rxns
Ex (NH4)2S (aq) + MgI2 (aq) ------->

NH4I + MgS

Rewrite: (NH4)2S (aq) + MgI2 (aq) -------> NH4I + MgS

Balance: (NH4)2S (aq) + MgI2 (aq) -------> 2 NH4I + MgS

Add phase labels: (NH4)2S (aq) + MgI2 (aq) -------> 2 NH4I (aq) + MgS (s)
 Double Displacement Rxns
We will now write ionic equations from the double displacement
molecular equation:

Complete ionic equation – strong electrolytes are broken up and

written as ions (show charges).

Remember who the strong electrolytes are: soluble ionic

compounds and strong acids.
 Double Displacement Rxns
(NH4)2S (aq) + MgI2 (aq) -------> 2 NH4I (aq) + MgS (s)

Complete ionic equation:

2 NH4+ (aq) + S2- (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) + 2 I1- (aq) ------->

2 NH4+ (aq) + 2 I1- (aq) + MgS (s)

 Double Displacement Rxns
Net ionic equation – spectator ions (ions that appear on both
sides) are cancelled out. Remaining species are brought down.

net ionic equation:

S2- (aq) + Mg2+ (aq) -------> MgS (s)

 Double Displacement Rxns
Now, put all the steps together and write a net ionic equation.

Steps to predict the products of a double displacement rxn:

1. Breakup reactant into ions (show charges).

2. Switch the cations.
3. Criss-Cross method to get correct formula for products.
4. Rewrite the reactants, arrow and products.
5. Balance the reaction by adding coefficients.
6. Check solubility chart to get phase labels.
7. Write the complete ionic equation. (Breakup strong electrolytes)
8. Write the net ionic equation. (Cancel spectator ions)
9. Reduce coefficients, if necessary.
 Double Displacement Rxns
Ex Write the net ionic equation for Na2CO3 (aq) + Al(NO3)3 (aq).

Na2CO3 (aq) + Al(NO3)3 (aq) -------->

NaNO3 Al2(CO3) 3

NaNO3 and Al2(CO3) 3 are the products!

 Double Displacement Rxns
Rewrite: Na2CO3 (aq) + Al(NO3)3 (aq) --------> NaNO3 + Al2(CO3)3

Balance: 3 Na2CO3 (aq) + 2 Al(NO3)3 (aq) --------> 6 NaNO3 + Al2(CO3)3

Phase labels: 3 Na2CO3 (aq) + 2 Al(NO3)3 (aq) -----> 6 NaNO3 (aq) + Al2(CO3)3 (s)

Write the complete ionic equation:

6 Na1+ (aq) + 3 CO32- (aq) + 2 Al3+ (aq) + 6 NO31- (aq) --------->

6 Na1+ (aq) + 6 NO31- (aq) + Al2(CO3)3 (s)

 Double Displacement Rxns
Cancel spectator ions:

Write the net ionic equation:

3 CO32- (aq) + 2 Al3+ (aq) ---------> Al2(CO3)3 (s)
 Sec. 4.3 Acid-Base Reactions
Acid (formula starts with H) – substance that produces H+ in
aqueous solution.

Base (formula contains OH) - substance that produces OH1- in

aqueous solution.

NH3 is also a base.

7 strong acids: HNO3, H2SO4, HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HClO3

Any acid not in this list are weak acids.
 Acid-Base Reactions
Acids are not salts, but always get the (aq) phase label.

Neutralization reaction: acid + base -----> salt + H 2O

Since water is the solvent in neutralization reactions, H 2O always

gets the (l) phase label.

H2O is a weak electrolyte and is never broke up into ions.

Neutralization reactions follow the double displacement reaction

steps.
 Acid-Base Reactions
Ex Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of HF (aq) +
NaOH (aq). Note: NaF is a soluble ionic compound.

HF (aq) + NaOH (aq) --------->

HOH NaF

H2 O
 Acid-Base Reactions
Rewrite: HF (aq) + NaOH (aq) ---------> H2O + NaF

Balance and phase labels: HF (aq) + NaOH (aq) --------> H2O (l) + NaF (aq)

Complete ionic equation:

HF (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH 1- (aq) -------->

H2O (l) + Na + (aq) + F 1- (aq)
 Acid-Base Reactions
Net ionic reaction:

HF (aq) + OH 1- (aq) --------> H2O (l) + F 1- (aq)

 Acid-Base Reactions
Ex Write the net ionic equation for the reaction of HCl (aq) +
Ca(OH)2 (aq).

HCl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) --------->

H2 O CaCl2
 Acid-Base Reactions
Rewrite: HCl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) ---------> H2O + CaCl2

Balance and phase labels: 2 HCl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) ----> 2 H2O (l) + CaCl2 (aq)

Complete ionic equation:

2 H+ (aq) + 2 Cl1- (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) + 2 OH 1- (aq) -------->

2 H2O (l) + Ca2+ (aq) + 2 Cl 1- (aq)
 Acid-Base Reactions
Net ionic reaction:

2 H+ (aq) + 2 OH 1- (aq) --------> 2 H2O (l)

Reduce coefficients: H+ (aq) + OH 1- (aq) --------> H2O (l)

 Sec. 4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Rxns
Oxidation-Reduction = Redox Reactions – involve a transfer of
electrons.

Oxidation – loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation number.

Mg (s) ---------> Mg2+ (aq) + 2 electrons

Reduction – gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation number.

Cu+ (aq) + 1 electron ---------> Cu (s)
 Oxidation Numbers
To see if oxidation or reduction occurred, you need to compare
the oxidation number of a species on the reactant side to the
oxidation number on the product side of a reaction.

There are rules to assign or calculate an oxidation number for an

atom or ion.

Rule 1: Any elemental form, oxidation number = zero

Ex elemental forms: metal (s), Na (s), Cr (s), Ca (s), etc.
elemental forms: H2 (g), N2 (g), O2 (g), F2 (g), Cl2 (g), Br2 (l), I2 (s)
 Oxidation Numbers
Rule 2: Monatomic ions, Oxidation number = charge.
Ex Ba2+, ox. # = +2 S2-, ox. # = -2
Cl1-, ox. # = -1 Mn7+, ox. # = +7

Rule 3: oxygen in a compound or polyatomic ion, ox. # = -2.

Ex
 Oxidation Numbers
Rule 4: hydrogen in a compound or polyatomic ion, ox. # = +1.
Ex

Rule 5: In a compound, all ox. # add up to zero.

Rule 6: In a polyatomic ion, all ox. # add up to the charge.

 Oxidation Numbers
Ex Calculate the oxidation number of P in H3PO4.

Notice that H3PO4 is a compound. Apply rule 5, in a compound, all ox. # add up to
zero.

Apply Rule 4, H in a compound, ox. # = +1 and Rule 3, O in a compound, ox. # = -2,

3H + P + 4O = 0
3(+1) + P + 4(-2) = 0
3 + P + (-8) = 0
P + (-5) = 0 add +5 to both sides

P = +5
 Oxidation Numbers
Ex Calculate the oxidation number of S in HSO31-.

Notice that HSO31- is a polyatomic ion. Apply rule 6, in a compound, all ox. # add
up to the charge on the polyatomic ion (-1).

Apply Rule 4, H in a compound, ox. # = +1 and Rule 3, O in a compound, ox. # = -2,

H + S + 3 O = -1
(+1) + S + 3(-2) = -1
1 + S + (-6) = -1
S + (-5) = -1 add +5 to both sides

S = +4
 Oxidation Numbers
Ex Calculate the oxidation number of Cr in Cr2O3.

2Cr + 3O = 0
2Cr + 3(-2) = 0
2Cr + (-6) = 0 add +6 to both sides
2Cr = +6

divide both sides by 2

Cr = +3
 Oxidation of metals by Acids and Salts

Single Displacement Reactions – An element

displaces a cation.

2 types of single displacement reactions:

1. metal (s) + acid (aq) --------> H2 (g) + salt (aq)

2. metal (s) + salt (aq) -----> new metal (s) + new salt (aq)
 Single Displacement Reactions
Single Displacement Reaction Steps:

1. Circle the metal and circle the cation.

2. The metal pushes out the cation and becomes a cation. The cation
becomes its elemental form.
3. On the product side, Criss-Cross method to get correct formula for the salt.
4. Rewrite the reactants, arrow and products.
5. Balance the reaction by adding coefficients.
6. Check solubility chart to get phase labels.
7. Write the complete ionic equation. (Breakup strong electrolytes)
8. Write the net ionic equation. (Cancel spectator ions)
9. Reduce coefficients, if necessary.
 Single Displacement Reaction #1
Ex Mg (s) + HCl (aq) ----------->

H2 (g) +

MgCl2

Products are H2 (g) and MgCl2

 Single Displacement Reaction #1
Rewrite: Mg (s) + HCl (aq) -----------> H2 (g) and MgCl2

Balance and phase labels: Check solubility chart.

Mg (s) + 2 HCl (aq) ------> H2 (g) + MgCl2 (aq)

Write complete ionic equation: Breakup strong electrolytes

Mg (s) + 2 H+ (aq) + 2 Cl1- (aq) ------> H2 (g) + Mg2+ (aq) + 2 Cl1- (aq)
 Single Displacement Reaction #1
Write net ionic equation: cancel spectator ions

Mg (s) + 2 H+ (aq) --------> H2 (g) + Mg2+ (aq)

 Single Displacement Reaction #2
Ex Ca (s) + NaNO3 (aq) ----------->

Na (s) +

Ca(NO3)2

Products are Na (s) and Ca(NO3)2

 Single Displacement Reaction #2
Rewrite: Ca (s) + NaNO3 (aq) -----------> Na (s) + Ca(NO3)2

Balance and phase labels: Ca (s) + 2 NaNO3 (aq) ------>

2 Na (s) + Ca(NO3)2 (aq)

Write complete ionic equation: Breakup strong electrolytes

Ca (s) + 2 Na+ (aq) + 2 NO31- (aq) -------->
2 Na (s) + Ca2+ (aq) + 2 NO31- (aq)
 Single Displacement Reaction #2
Rewrite: Ca (s) + NaCl (aq) -----------> Na (s)
and CaCl2

Balance and phase labels: Check solubility chart.

Ca (s) + 2 NaCl (aq) --------> Na (s) + CaCl2 (aq)

Write complete ionic equation: Breakup strong electrolytes

Ca (s) + 2 Na+ (aq) + 2 Cl1- (aq) --------> H2 (g) + Mg2+ (aq) + Cl1- (aq)
 Single Displacement Reaction #2
Write net ionic equation: cancel spectator ions

Ca (s) + 2 Na+ (aq) --------> Na (s) + Ca2+ (aq)

 Single Displacement Reactions
Now, let’s see which species got oxidized and which species got
reduced.

We will get a net ionic equation and the assign oxidation

numbers to remaining species.

Oxidation – loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation number.

Reduction – gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation number.

 Single Displacement Reaction #3
Ex Which species got reduced in the following reaction?
HBr (aq) + Al (s) ---------->

H2 (g) +

AlBr3

Products = H2 (g) + AlBr3

 Single Displacement Reaction #3
Rewrite: HBr (aq) + Al (s) ----------> H2 (g) + AlBr3

Balance and phase labels: Check solubility chart.

6 HBr (aq) + 2 Al (s) ----------> 3 H2 (g) + 2 AlBr3 (aq)

Write complete ionic equation: Breakup strong electrolytes

6 H+ (aq) + 6 Br1- (aq) + 2 Al (s) ---------->
3 H2 (g) + 2 Al3+ (aq) + 6 Br1- (aq)
 Single Displacement Reaction #3
Write net ionic equation: cancel spectator ions
6 H+ (aq) + 2 Al (s) ----------> 3 H2 (g) + 2 Al3+ (aq)

Assign oxidation numbers: Use rules 1 and 2

6 H+ (aq) + 2 Al (s) --------> 3 H2 (g) + 2 Al3+ (aq)

ox. # = +1 0 0 +3

H+ (aq) --------> H2 (g) +1 to 0 ox. # decreases = reduction

Al (s) --------> Al3+ (aq) 0 to +3 ox. # increases = oxidation
 Single Displacement Reaction #3
6 H+ (aq) + 2 Al (s) --------> 3 H2 (g) + 2 Al3+ (aq)
ox. # = +1 0 0 +3

H+ (aq) --------> H2 (g)

+1 to 0 ox. # decreases = reduction
H+ (aq) gained electrons and got reduced.

Al (s) --------> Al3+ (aq)

0 to +3 ox. # increases = oxidation
Al (s) lost electrons and got oxidized
 Single Displacement Reaction #4
Ex Which species got oxidized in the following reaction?
SnCl2 (aq) + Li (s) ---------->

LiCl

Products are Sn (s) and LiCl.

 Single Displacement Reaction #4
Rewrite: SnCl2 (aq) + Li (s) ----------> Sn (s) + LiCl.

Balance and phase labels: Check solubility chart.

SnCl2 (aq) + 2 Li (s) ----------> Sn (s) + 2 LiCl (aq)

Write complete ionic equation: Breakup strong electrolytes

Sn2+ (aq) + 2 Cl1- (aq) + 2 Li (s) ----------> Sn (s) + 2 Li+ (aq) + 2 Cl1- (aq)

Write net ionic equation: cancel spectator ions

Sn2+ (aq) + 2 Li (s) ----------> Sn (s) + 2 Li+ (aq)
 Single Displacement Reaction #4
Assign oxidation numbers: Use rules 1 and 2

Sn2+ (aq) + 2 Li (s) ----------> Sn (s) + 2 Li+ (aq)

ox. # = +2 0 0 +1

Sn2+ (aq) --------> Sn (s) +2 to 0 ox. # decreases = reduction

Sn2+ (aq) got reduced.

Li (s) --------> Li+ (aq) 0 to +1 ox. # increases = oxidation

Li (s) got oxidized.
 Activity Series
Does any metal push out any cation?

Metals have their own strength in single displacement reactions.

You must check the activity series and follow the rule:

A metal will push out a cation if, the metal is above the cation in
the Activity Series.
 Activity Series
.
 Activity Series
Identify the metal and the cation.
 Activity Series
Ex Will Al (s) and HNO3 (aq) react? Check the Activity Series.

Yes, the metal (Al) is above the cation (H+).

 Activity Series
Ex Will Co (s) and NaCl (aq) react? Check the Activity Series.

No, the metal (Co) is below the cation (Na+). No reaction.

 Oxidizing and Reducing agents
Redox reactions involve one substance getting oxidized and
another getting reduced.

The substance that is making another substance get oxidized is

called the Oxidizing Agent (but it gets reduced).

The substance that is making another substance get reduced is

called the Reducing Agent (but it gets oxidized).
 Oxidizing and Reducing agents
Ex In the following reaction, which reactant is the Oxidizing
Agent and which reactant is the Reducing Agent?

2 Cr (s) + 3 Pb2+ (aq) ----------> 3 Pb (s) + 2 Cr3+ (aq)

ox # = 0 +2 0 +3

Cr: 0 to + 3. Cr (s) got oxidized. Cr (s) is the Reducing Agent.

Pb: +2 to 0. Pb2+ (aq) got reduced. Pb2+ (aq) is the Oxidizing Agent.
 Oxidation and Reduction
Reactions that involves covalent substances do not involve net ionic
equations.

For reactions that involve covalent substances, assign oxidation

numbers using the rules.

Ex N2 (g) + 3 H2 (g) ------->

ox. # = 0 0

N2 (g) got reduced (oxidizing agent).

H2 (g) got oxidized (reducing agent).
 Oxidation and Reduction
Try this method on a ionic reaction.

Zn: +2 to 0. Zn2+ got reduced (oxidizing agent).

Cl: -1 to -1. No change. Neither oxidized nor reduced.

K: 0 to +1. K (s) got oxidized (reducing agent).

Sec. 4.5 Concentration of Solutions
Concentration – amount of solute being dissolved in a given
quantity of solvent or solution.

Ex NaCl (s) -------------------> NaCl (aq)

solute solution

Molarity = M = mol solute

L solution
 Molarity
Molarity = M = mol solute
L solution

Ex 0.50 M NaCl = 0.5 mol NaCl

1 L NaCl

Ex 2.0 M H2SO4 = 2.0 mol H2SO4

1 L H2SO4

Molarity is a link between moles and liters.

 Molarity
Ex Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 5.62 g NaHCO 3 to make 250.0 mL
of solution.

Molarity = M = mol NaHCO3

L NaHCO3

5.62 g NaHCO3 x 1 mol NaHCO3 = 0.06690 mol NaHCO3

84.008 g NaHCO3

250.0 mL x 1x10-3 L = 0.2500 L

1 mL

Molarity = M = mol NaHCO3 = 0.06690 mol NaHCO3 = 0.268 M NaHCO3

L NaHCO3 0.2500 L
 Molarity, Moles and Volume
Expanded Road Map:

Molarity is our stoichiometry link between moles and liters.

 Molarity, Moles and Volume
Ex How many grams of NaOH are in 32.7 mL of 0.75 M NaOH?

32.7 mL NaOH x 1x10-3 L x 0.75 mol NaOH x 39.998 g NaOH = 0.98 g NaOH
1 mL 1 L NaOH 1 mol NaOH
 Dilution
In the lab, it is often necessary to take a concentrated solution
and dilute it to a lower molarity.

The dilution equation is used: M1V1 = M2V2

M1 = concentration of Stock solution

V1 = volume of Stock solution
M2 = final molarity needed
V2 = total volume of diluted solution needed
 Dilution
Ex How many mL of an 18 M H2SO4 solution are needed to make 250 mL of 0.50 M
H2SO4 solution?

M1V1 = M2V2

M1 = concentration of Stock solution = 18 M

V1 = volume of Stock solution = ?
M2 = final molarity needed = 0.50 M
V2 = total volume of diluted solution needed = 250 mL

M1V1 = M2V2 rearrange to V1 = M2V2 = 0.50 M x 250 mL = 6.9 mL

M1 18 M
 Dilution
Ex What is the concentration of a NaClO3 solution if 22 mL of this solution was diluted
to a final volume of 100.0 mL having a concentration of 0.65 M NaClO3?

M1V1 = M2V2

M1 = ?
V1 = 22 mL
M2 = 0.65 M
V2 = 100.0 mL

M1V1 = M2V2 rearrange to M1 = M2V2 = 0.65 M x 100.0 mL = 3.0 M

V1 22 mL
 Sec. 4.6 Solution Stoichiometry
.
 Solution Stoichiometry #1
Ex 2 HCl (aq) + Ba(OH)2 (aq) ---------> BaCl2 (aq) + 2 H2O (aq)

How many grams of HCl are needed to react with 25.0 mL of 0.200 M Ba(OH) 2?
 Solution Stoichiometry #1
Start with the volume of Ba(OH)2.

25.0 mL Ba(OH)2 x 1x10-3 L Ba(OH)2 x 0.200 mol Ba(OH)2 x

1 mL Ba(OH)2 1 L Ba(OH)2

x 2 mol HCl x 36.458 g HCl = 0.365 g HCl

1 mol Ba(OH)2 1 mol HCl
 Solution Stoichiometry #2
Ex Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2 HBr (aq) ---------> 2 H2O (l) + CaBr2 (aq)

How many mL of 0.390 M HBr is required to react with 115 mL of

0.251 M Ca(OH) 2?
 Solution Stoichiometry #2
Start with the volume of Ca(OH)2.

115 mL Ca(OH)2 x 1x10-3 L Ca(OH)2 x 0.251 mol Ca(OH)2

1 mL Ca(OH)2 1 L Ca(OH)2

x 2 mol HBr x 1 L HBr x 1 mL HBr = 148 mL HBr

1 mol Ca(OH)2 0.390 mol HBr 1x10-3 L HBr
 Solution Stoichiometry #3
Ex 3 BaCl2 (aq) + Fe2(SO4)3 (aq) -------> 3 BaSO4 (s) + 2 FeCl3 (aq)

How many grams of precipitate are formed when 150.0 mL of 0.140 M

Fe2(SO4) 3 react?
 Solution Stoichiometry #3
Start with the volume of Fe2(SO4)3.

150.0 mL Fe2(SO4)3. x 1x10-3 L Fe2(SO4)3 x 0.140 mol Fe2(SO4)3

1 mL Fe2(SO4)3 1 L Fe2(SO4)3

x 3 mol BaSO4 x 233.37 g BaSO4 = 14.7 g BaSO4

1 mol Fe2(SO4)3 1 mol BaSO4