Computer Networks

Lt Col Shantanu Kaushik

 Course Goal

Understand the fundamental concepts

and basic principles of Computer
Networks.
Textbook
• Required:
• ``Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach,''  by Jim Kurose
and Keith Ross.

• Recommended:
• ``Computer Networks: A Systems Approach,''  by Larry L. Peterson
and Bruce S. Davie.
• ``Computer Networks,''  by Andrew S. Tanenbaum.
• ``Computer Networks and Internets,'' by Douglas E. Comer.
Overview
• Computer Networks
• Data Communication
• Computer Networks
• Transmission Media
• Digital & Analog Transmission
• Routing & Network Topologies
• Network Types
• LAN, WAN, MAN
• Introduction to Network Components
• ISO/OSI Model
• Introduction to Wireless Network
• Internet & Applications like E-Mail, FTP, Telnet, WWW, etc
Your Best Strategy
• Come to every lecture.

• Read articles related to network protocols and

network programming.

• Do not wait till last minute to prepare for exam.

• Enjoy the fun!

Lectures need your Help!
• Ask questions!

• Make suggestions!

• Read something interesting and relevant to this

subject? Announce it in class!
A Communication Model
• Source
• Generates data to be transmitted
• Transmitter
• Converts data into transmittable signals
• Transmission System
• Carries data
• Receiver
• Converts received signal into data
• Destination
• Takes incoming data
Communication Model Diagram
 Computer Network
Computer Network is a collection of distributed
intelligent machines that are connected with each
other with transmission media for the purpose of data
sharing, communication and sharing of computer
resources.

Is Internet a computer network?

It is not a single network, but a

network of networks
i.e an Inter-network
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
• Internet: “network of
networks” global ISP
• Interconnected ISPs
• Protocols: control sending, home
network
receiving of information regional ISP
• e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype,
802.11
• Internet standards:
• RFC: Request for comments
• IETF: Internet Engineering Task
Force institutional
network
What’s the Internet: A Service View
mobile network
• Infrastructure that provides
services to applications: global ISP

• Web, VoIP, email, games, e-

commerce, social nets, … home
network
• Infrastructure that provides regional ISP

programming interface to
apps
• hooks that allow sending
and receiving app programs
to “connect” to Internet
institutional
network
The Network Diagram

Wired Network PC Firewall The Internet

Fiber Optic Network Cable

Router
Switch

Server Other LANS

Wireless Network
The Computer Network

 A computer network is a group of computers/devices(Nodes) that use a

set of common communication protocols over digital interconnections
for the purpose of sharing resources located on or provided by the
network nodes.
 The nodes of a computer network may include personal computers,
servers, networking hardware, or other specialised or general-purpose
hosts.
 The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad
spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on
physically wired, optical, and wireless technologies.
 A communication protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information
over a network.
Advantages of Computer
Networking
• Management - The computers, staff and information can
be well managed.
• Accessibility - A network provides the means to
exchange data among the computers and to make
programs and data available to people.
• Resource Sharing - It permits the sharing of the
resources of the machine.
• Backup - Networking also provides the function of back-
up.
• Flexible working environment - Networking provides a
flexible working environment. Employees can work at
home by using office computer through networks.
Disadvantages of Computer
Networking
Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be
expensive.
Managing a large network is complicated, requires training
and a network manager usually needs to be employed.
If the file server breaks down, the files on the file server
become inaccessible. Email might still work if it is on a
separate server.
Viruses can spread to other computers through a computer
network.
There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area
networks. Security procedures are needed to prevent such
abuse, eg a firewall.
Communication Model Diagram
 Data Transmission

• Quality of the signal

being transmitted

The successful
transmission of data • Characteristics of the
depends on two transmission medium
factors:
Transmission Terminology
Data transmission occurs between transmitter and receiver
over some transmission medium.

Unguided media
Guided media
(wireless)

twisted pair,
air, vacuum,
coaxial cable,
seawater
optical fiber
Copper Cable

 The most common, easiest, quickest,

and cheapest form of network media
to install.

 The disadvantage of sending data over

copper wire is that the further the
signal travels, the weaker it becomes.
 Coaxial Cable
 It can be run longer distances than Twisted pair Cables.

• Speed: 10-100Mbps
• Cost: Inexpensive
• Media and connector size: Medium
• Maximum cable length: 500m
Shielded Twisted Pair(STP)
• Speed: 10-100Mbps
• Cost: Moderate
• Media and connector size: Medium to large
• Maximum cable length: 100m
Unshielded Twisted Pair
 UTP is a four-pair wire Speed: 10-100-1000 Mbps*
medium used in a variety of Cost: Least Expensive
networks. Media and connector size: Small
 Each of the eight copper Maximum cable length: 100m * (Depending
wires in the UTP cable is on the quality/category of cable)
covered by insulating material
Fiber Optic Cable
 Glass fiber carrying light pulses, each
pulse a bit.
 Based on the Total Internal Reflection
of Light.
 High-speed point-to-point transmission
10-100 Gbps
 Low error rate:
 repeaters spaced far apart
 immune to electromagnetic noise
Physical media: Radio
• Signal carried in Radio link types:
electromagnetic spectrum  Terrestrial microwave
 e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
• No physical “wire”  LAN (e.g., WiFi)
• Bidirectional  11Mbps, 54 Mbps
 Wide-area (e.g., cellular)
• Propagation environment  3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
effects:  4G LTE: 10s to 100s Mbps
• Reflection  Satellite
 Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
• Obstruction by objects multiple smaller channels)
• Interference  270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
altitude
Transmission Terminology
• Simplex
• Signals transmitted in one direction
• eg. Television

• Half duplex
• Both stations transmit, but only one at a time
• eg. police radio

• Full duplex
• Simultaneous transmissions
• eg. telephone
Frequency, Spectrum and
Bandwidth
Time Domain Concepts

 Analog signal
• signal intensity varies smoothly with no breaks
 Digital signal
• signal intensity maintains a constant level and then
abruptly changes to another level
 Periodic signal
• signal pattern repeats over time
 Aperiodic signal
• pattern not repeated over time
Analog and Digital Signals
Periodic
Signals
 Sine Wave(periodic continuous signal)

• peak amplitude (A)

• maximum strength of signal
• typically measured in volts
• frequency (f)
• rate at which the signal repeats
• Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
• period (T) is the amount of time for one repetition
• T = 1/f
• phase ()
• relative position in time within a single period of signal
Varying Sine Waves
s(t) = A sin(2ft +)
Frequency Domain Concepts
• Signals are made up of many frequencies
• Components are sine waves
• Fourier analysis can show that any signal is made
up of components at various frequencies, in which
each component is a sinusoid
• Can plot frequency domain functions
Addition of
Frequency
Components
(T=1/f)

c is sum of f & 3f
Frequency
Domain
Representations
 Spectrum & Bandwidth
Spectrum
• range of frequencies contained in signal

Absolute bandwidth
• width of spectrum

Effective bandwidth
• often just bandwidth
• narrow band of frequencies containing most energy

DC Component
• component of zero frequency
Data Rate and Bandwidth
any transmission this limits the data rate
system has a that can be carried on
limited band of the transmission
frequencies medium

limiting square waves have

bandwidth most energy in infinite components
creates first few and hence an
distortions components infinite bandwidth

There is a direct relationship between

data rate and bandwidth.
Importance of Bandwidth
• Bandwidth is the amount of information that can flow
through a network connection in a given period of time.
• Bandwidth is finite
• the bandwidth of a modem is limited to about 56 kbps
by both the physical properties of twisted-pair phone
wires and by modem technology
• Bandwidth is not free
• For WAN connections bandwidth is purchased from a
service provider
• A key factor in analyzing network performance and
designing new networks
• The demand for bandwidth is ever increasing
Bandwidth Analogy
Bandwidth Analogy
Bandwidth Measurement
• In digital systems, the basic unit of bandwidth is bits per second (bps)
• The actual bandwidth of a network is determined by a combination of the
physical media and the technologies chosen for signaling and detecting
network signals
Bandwidth Limitations
• Bandwidth is limited by a number of factors
• Media
• Network devices
• Physics
• Each have their own limiting factors
• Actual bandwidth of a network is determined by a
combination of the physical media and the
technologies chosen for signaling and detecting
network signals
Data Transfer Calculation
Advantages & Disadvantages
of Digital Signals
cheaper
less susceptible to noise interference

suffer more from attenuation

digital now preferred choice
Analog Signals
Digital Signals
Analog and
Digital
Transmissio
n
Transmission Impairments
• Signal received may differ from signal transmitted
causing:
• analog - degradation of signal quality
• digital - bit errors
• Most significant impairments are
• attenuation and attenuation distortion
• delay distortion
• noise
 Equalize Received signal
attenuation across strength must be:
the band of • strong enough to be
frequencies used by detected
• sufficiently higher than
using loading coils noise to be received
or amplifiers. without error

Strength can be
increased using
amplifiers or
repeaters.

ATTENUATION
 signal strength falls off with distance over any transmission medium
 varies with frequency
 Introduction
Our goal:
• Get “feel” and terminology.
• More depth, detl later in course.
• Apch:
• Use Internet as example.

All material copyright 1996-2009

J.F Kurose and K.W. Ross, All Rights Reserved
Overview
• What’s the Internet?
• What’s a protocol?
• Nw Edge: Hosts, Access Net, Physical Media
• Nw Core: Packet/Circuit Switching, Internet
Structure
• Performance: loss, delay, throughput
• Security
• Protocol layers, Service Models
• History
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts”
view
PC mobile network
• millions of connected computing
server devices:
• hosts = end systems global ISP
wireless
laptop • running network apps
smartphone
home
 communication links network
 fiber, copper, radio, regional ISP
wireless satellite
links  transmission rate:
wired bandwidth
links

 Packet switches: forward packets

router (chunks of data) institutional
 routers and switches network
 What’s a Protocol?
Human Protocols: Nw Protocols:
• “knock, knock, who’s there” • machines rather than
• Call through phones humans
• Introductions
• all communication activity
in Internet governed by
protocols
… specific msgs sent
… specific actions taken when protocols define format,
msgs received, or other order of msgs sent and
events received among network
entities, and actions taken
on msg transmission,
receipt
What’s a Protocol?
A human protocol and a cmptr Nw protocol:

Hi
TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>

time

Q: other human protocols?

Roadmap
 What is the Internet?
 Nw Edge
• End Systems, Access Nw, Links
 Nw Core
• Packet Switching, Circuit Switching, Nw Structure
 Delay, Loss, Throughput in Nw
 Protocol layers, Service Models
 Nw under Attack: Security
 A Closer Look at Nw Structure
• Nw Edge: mobile network
• hosts: clients and servers
• servers often in data centers global ISP

home
• Access Nw, Physical network
regional ISP
media: wired, wireless
communication links

• Nw Core:
 Interconnected routers
 Network of Networks
institutional
network
Access Nw and Physical media

Q: How to connect end

systems to edge router?
• residential access nets
• institutional access networks
(school, company)
• mobile access networks
keep in mind:
• bandwidth (bits per second)
of access network?
• shared or dedicated?
Access Net: Digital Subscriber Line
(DSL)
central office telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Access Net: Cable Nw
cable headend
…

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

frequency division multiplexing: different channels transmitted

in different frequency bands
FDM vs TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
 Access Net: Home Nw
wireless
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)
Enterprise Access Nw (Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

• Typically used in companies, universities, etc

 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
 Today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet switch
The Networking Devices(Nodes)

1. NIC Card

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)
2. Repeater
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch
3. Hub
4. Switch
5. Bridge
6. Router
7. Gateway http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_router
8. Firewall
1. Network Interface Card

 NIC is used to physically connect

host devices to the network
media.
 A NIC is a printed circuit board that
fits into the expansion slot of a bus
on a computer motherboard.
 It can also be a peripheral device.
NICs are sometimes called
network adapters.
 Each NIC is identified by a unique
code called a Media Access Control
(MAC) address.
 This address is used to control data
communication for the host on the
network.
 2. Repeaters

 A repeater is a network device used to

regenerate a signal.
 Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals
that are distorted by transmission loss due to
attenuation.
 A repeater does not make an intelligent
decision concerning forwarding packets
3. Hubs

 Hubs concentrate on connections.

 In other words, they take a group of
hosts and allow the network to see
them as a single unit. This is done
passively, without any other effect on
the data transmission.
 Active hubs concentrate hosts and
also regenerate signals.
4. Bridges

 Bridges convert network data

formats and perform basic data
transmission management.
 Bridges provide connections
between LANs.
 They also check data to determine
if it should cross the bridge. This
makes each part of the network
more efficient
5. Switches

 Switches add more intelligence to data transfer management.

 They can determine if data should remain on a LAN and transfer data
only to the connection that needs it.
 Another difference between a bridge and switch is that a switch does not
convert data transmission formats
6. Routers

 Routers have all the capabilities listed

earlier.
 Routers can regenerate signals, concentrate
multiple connections, convert data
transmission formats, and manage data
transfers.
 They can also connect to a WAN, which
allows them to connect LANs that are
separated by great distances.
7. Gateway

 A gateway is a piece of
networking hardware used in
telecommunications for
telecommunications networks that
allows data to flow from one discrete
network to another.
 Gateways are distinct from routers or
switches in that they communicate
using more than one protocol to
connect a bunch of networks
8. Firewall

 A firewall is a network device or

software for controlling network
security and access rules.
 Firewalls are inserted in connections
between secure internal networks
and potentially insecure external
networks such as the Internet.
 Firewalls are typically configured to
reject access requests from
unrecognized sources while allowing
actions from recognized ones.
 The vital role firewalls play in network
security grows in parallel with the
constant increase in cyber attacks.
Wireless Access Nw
• Shared wireless access network connects end system to router
• via base station a.k.a. “access point”
Wireless LANs: Wide-area wireless access
 Within building (100 ft)  Provided by Jio, Airtel, BSNL
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 (cellular) operator, 10’s km
Mbps transmission rate  Betn 1 and 10 Mbps
 3G, 4G, LTE

to Internet

to Internet
Host: sends packets of data
Host sending function:
• Takes appl msg
• Breaks into smaller chunks, two packets,
L bits each
known as packets, of length L
bits
• Transmits packet into access
Nw at transmission rate R 2 1

• link transmission rate, R: link transmission rate

a.k.a. link capacity, aka link host
bandwidth
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-93
The network core
• mesh of interconnected
routers
• packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
• forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source
to destination
• each packet transmitted at
full link capacity

Introduction 1-94
Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss
C
A R = 100 Mb/s

D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link for a period of
time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

Introduction 1-95
 Two key network-core functions
routing: determines source-destination forwarding: move packets
route taken by packets
 routing algorithms from router’s input to
appropriate router output

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1
1
011

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
Network Layer 4-96
Alternative core: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated to,
reserved for “call” between
source & destination:
• In diagram, each link has four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
• Dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed) performance

• Circuit segment idle if not used by call (no

sharing)
• Commonly used in traditional telephone
networks

Introduction 1-97
Internet structure: network of networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
 So that any two hosts can send packets to each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
 Evolution was driven by economics and national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet structure
Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them
together?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

…
…

access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access
net access
access
net
…
net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
net
access
net … …
access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP to each other

…
…

directly doesn’t scale: O(N2) connections.

…
access access
…

net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
…

… net
access
net access
access
net
…
net
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP? Customer and provider ISPs
have economic agreement.

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

…
…

global
access
ISP access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access
net access
access
net
…
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A

…
…

access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access
net access
access
net
…
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors …. which must be
interconnected
Internet exchange point
access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

…
…

access IXP access

net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
peering link
net
access
… net
access
net access
access
net
…
net
Internet structure: network of networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to ISPS

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

…
…

access IXP access

net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access
net access
access
net
…
net
Internet structure: network of networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft, Akamai ) may run their
own network, to bring services, content close to end users

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
Content provider network

…
…

access IXP access

net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access
net access
access
net
…
net
 Internet structure: network of networks

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP

• at center: small # of well-connected large networks

• “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national &
international coverage
• content provider network (e.g, Google): private network that connects it
data centers to Internet, often bypassing
Introduction
tier-1, regional ISPs 1-106
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Verizon, ATT, Sprint
POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… … …
…

to/from customers

Introduction 1-107
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-108
“Real” Internet delays and routes
• what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
• traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along end-end
Internet path towards destination. For all i:
• sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
• router i will return packets to sender
• sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-109
“Real” Internet delays, routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr

3 delay measurements from

gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

* Do some traceroutes from exotic countriesIntroduction

at www.traceroute.org 1-110
Packet loss
• queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite
capacity
• packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
• lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by
source end system, or not at all

buffer
A (waiting area) packet being transmitted

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss
Introduction 1-111
Throughput
• throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits
transferred between sender/receiver
• instantaneous: rate at given point in time
• average: rate over longer period of time

server,
server withbits
sends linkpipe
capacity
that can carry linkpipe
capacity
that can carry
file of into
(fluid) F bits
pipe fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec fluid at rate
R bits/sec
to send to client c
Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-112
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-113
Protocol “layers”
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”:
• hosts Question:
• routers is there any hope of organizing
• links of various structure of network?
media
• applications …. or at least our discussion of
• protocols networks?
• hardware,
software

Introduction 1-114
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

• a series of steps

Introduction 1-115
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

layers: each layer implements a service

• via its own internal-layer actions
• relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-116
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
• explicit structure allows identification, relationship
of complex system’s pieces
• layered reference model for discussion
• modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
• change of implementation of layer’s service transparent
to rest of system
• e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of
system
• layering considered harmful?
Introduction 1-117
Internet protocol stack
• application: supporting network
applications
• FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
• transport: process-process data transport
transfer
• TCP, UDP network
• network: routing of datagrams from link
source to destination
• IP, routing protocols physical
• link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements
• Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP
• physical: bits “on the wire”

Introduction 1-118
 message M
source

application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn H t M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-119
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-120
Network security
• field of network security:
• how bad guys can attack computer networks
• how we can defend networks against attacks
• how to design architectures that are immune to attacks
• Internet not originally designed with (much)
security in mind
• original vision: “a group of mutually trusting users
attached to a transparent network” 
• Internet protocol designers playing “catch-up”
• security considerations in all layers!

Introduction 1-121
Bad guys: put malware into hosts via Internet
• malware can get in host from:
• virus: self-replicating infection by receiving/executing
object (e.g., e-mail attachment)
• worm: self-replicating infection by passively receiving
object that gets itself executed
• spyware malware can record keystrokes, web sites
visited, upload info to collection site
• infected host can be enrolled in botnet, used for
spam. DDoS attacks

Introduction 1-122
Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure
Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources (server,
bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic by
overwhelming resource with bogus traffic
1. select target

2. break into hosts around the network

(see botnet)

3. send packets to target from

compromised hosts
target

Introduction 1-123
Bad guys can sniff packets
packet “sniffing”:
• broadcast media (shared ethernet, wireless)
• promiscuous network interface reads/records all packets (e.g.,
including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B

 wireshark software used for end-of-chapter labs is a (free) packet-sniffer

Introduction 1-124
Bad guys can use fake addresses

IP spoofing: send packet with false source address

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B

… lots more on security (throughout, Chapter 8)

Introduction 1-125
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-126
Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
• 1961: Kleinrock - • 1972:
queueing theory shows • ARPAnet public demo
effectiveness of packet- • NCP (Network Control
switching Protocol) first host-host
• 1964: Baran - packet- protocol
switching in military nets • first e-mail program
• 1967: ARPAnet conceived • ARPAnet has 15 nodes
by Advanced Research
Projects Agency
• 1969: first ARPAnet node
operational

Introduction 1-127
Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets

• 1970: ALOHAnet satellite

network in Hawaii Cerf and Kahn’s
• 1974: Cerf and Kahn - internetworking principles:
architecture for interconnecting • minimalism, autonomy - no
internal changes required to
networks interconnect networks
• 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC • best effort service model
• late70’s: proprietary • stateless routers
architectures: DECnet, SNA, XNA • decentralized control

• late 70’s: switching fixed length define today’s Internet

packets (ATM precursor) architecture
• 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
Introduction 1-128
Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

• 1983: deployment of • new national networks:

TCP/IP Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet,
• 1982: smtp e-mail protocol Minitel
defined • 100,000 hosts connected
• 1983: DNS defined for to confederation of
name-to-IP-address networks
translation
• 1985: ftp protocol defined
• 1988: TCP congestion
control

Introduction 1-129
Internet history
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
• early 1990’s: ARPAnet late 1990’s – 2000’s:
decommissioned • more killer apps: instant
• 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on messaging, P2P file sharing
commercial use of NSFnet • network security to
(decommissioned, 1995)
forefront
• early 1990s: Web • est. 50 million host, 100
• hypertext [Bush 1945, Nelson million+ users
1960’s]
• backbone links running at
• HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
Gbps
• 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
• late 1990’s: commercialization
of the Web

Introduction 1-130
Internet history
2005-present
• ~750 million hosts
• Smartphones and tablets
• Aggressive deployment of broadband access
• Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
• Emergence of online social networks:
• Facebook: soon one billion users
• Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their own networks
• Bypass Internet, providing “instantaneous” access to search,
email, etc.
• E-commerce, universities, enterprises running their services in
“cloud” (eg, Amazon EC2)

Introduction 1-131
Introduction: summary
covered a “ton” of material! you now have:
• Internet overview • context, overview, “feel”
• what’s a protocol? of networking
• network edge, core, access • more depth, detail to
network follow!
• packet-switching versus
circuit-switching
• Internet structure
• performance: loss, delay,
throughput
• layering, service models
• security
• history
Introduction 1-132