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01
Carbohydrate metabolism
ALIA PRINCESS
2108260050
1. Blood glucose increases:
• Glycolysis (catabolism)
• Glycogenesis (anabolism)
2. Blood glucose decreases:
• Glycogenolysis (catabolism)
• Gluconeogenesis(anabolism)
GLYCOLYSIS
• Is a glucose breakdown pathway to produce energy

• This process is ongoingcytoplasm, the enzymes of this pathway were discoveredcytoplasm
• Can take place aerobically and anaerobically
• Under aerobic conditions, glucose is oxidized topyruvate→ aerobic glycolysis
• HereO2 is used forreoxidizeNADH formed during oxidationGlyceraldehyde3 Phosphates
GLYCOLYSIS PATHWAY
● Glucose enters the glycolytic pathway by phosphorylation to glucose 6phosphate

● Blood glucose uptake for phosphorylation for all cells except liver parenchyma cells and
→LangerhansThe pancreas is catalyzed by enzymesHexokinase
● In liver parenchyma cells and →LangerhansThe pancreas is phosphorylation of glucose
catalyzed by enzymesGlucokinase.
● ATP is required in this reaction for a phosphate donor
● Mg2+ metal ion (or metal iondivalentothers (e.g. Mn2+) are required to react as
complexesMg-ATP
● Under physiological conditions this reaction can be considered as irreversible.
● glycolysisUnder anaerobic conditions it occurs in non-containing
cellsmitochondria(eg: erythrocyte cells) or tissue that is in a stateanoxia
● Lactic acid as the end product in this anaerobic glycolysis
● Lactic acid buildup in muscle cells can causenumbmuscle
● Lactic acid is usually (although slowly) can be removed from the cell, follow
the blood circulation to form glucose throughgluconeogenesisin the liver or in
the kidney
ENERGY FORMED IN GLYCOLYSIS
● The formation of ATP follows through an enzyme-catalyzed phosphorylation

reactionpyruvate kinase.
● Phosphoenolpyruvate+ ADP →pyruvate+ATP
● This is an example of phosphorylation at the substrate level.
● From this substrate-level phosphorylation, 2 ATP molecules are formed each
● NAD asacceptorelectrons on oxidationglyceraldehyde3 phosphates must be
regenerated for glycolysis to continue
● The NADH formed along the glycolysis pathway will transfer its electrons to the
respiratory chain
OXYGEN FORMATION IN GLYCOLYSIS
● An increase in the concentration of lactate in the blood is called lactic acidosis

● Takes place in the failure of the circulatory systeme.g: on the circumstancesinfarction
myocardial, pulmonary embolism, and uncontrolled bleeding
● Failure to provide sufficient O2 to the tissues causes disruption of the process of
oxidation phosphorylation and the formation of ATP
● To meet the needs of ATP, the process of anaerobic glycolysis takes place in cells
GLYCOGENOLYSIS
• Solving processglycogento glucose-1-phosphate andglycogen

• The reaction occurs inhepatocyteandmyocyte
• This process is not a reversal of Glycogenesis but rather a separate trajectory
• Two main regulatory enzymes: 1) Glycogen phosphorylase, breaking bonds
1-4 glycogen, 2)phosphorylase kinase
MECHANISM OF GLYCOGENOLYSIS
1. Branch chain shortening

2. Remove branch
3. Conversion of glucose 1-phosphate to
glucose 6-phosphate
4. Lysosomaldegradeglycogen
Stimulation and inhibitionglycogenolysis
1. Activationproteinskinase A
2. Activationfromphosphorylase
kinase
3. Activation glycogen
phosphorylase
GLYCOGENESIS
• In the muscles, this element only meets the needs of the organ itself and a ready-made
source of fuel for muscle contraction
• If glucose is not stored as glycogen alone, the excess is diverted and formed into free
fatty acids through the processlipogenesis
GLYCOGENESIS PATHWAY
1. SynthesisUDP-glucose
• α-D-glucose is in addition touridine
diphosphate(UDP) is the source
ofglucosylresidues added for molecular
growthglycogen.
• UDP-glucose is synthesized from glucose 1-
phosphate and ATP by UDP-
glucosepyrophosphorylase. Bondenergydeep
highpyrophosphate(PPi), the second product of
the reaction ishydrolysisbe twophosphate
inorganic(Pi) bypyrophospatase.
2.Synthesisprimer to initiate synthesisglycogen
• glycogen synthaseresponsible for creatingalpha(1-4) linkage insideglycogen.
• enzymesit cannot initiate the formation of a chain that uses free glucose
asacceptorof the glucose molecule from UDP-glucose.
3.Chain elongationglycogenbyglycogen synthase
• Glycogen chain elongation is involved in the
transfer of glucose from the UDP-glucose to the
endnonreducingof chain growth, forming
bondsglycosidicnew withanimerik
hydroxylfrom carbon 1 of glucoseactivatedand
the 4 carbons of the glucose residue received.
• enzymesresponsible for creatingalpha(14)
inglycogenisglycogen synthase.
GLUCONEOGENESIS
Substrate Gluconeogenesis
• Precursorgluconeogenicare molecules that can be used to produce glucose.

• Procursorthe intermediates ofglycolysisandcycle tricarboxylic AC ID(TCA)
• Substrateforgluconeogenesis:
a. glycerol,
b. Lactate
c. Andα-keto acids
ArrangementGluconeogenesis
a. Glucagonhormonesit comes from cellsαpancreatic

isletsstimulatinggluconeogenesiswith 3 mechanisms
• Change the effectorallosteric Glucagon lowers the level of fructose 2,6-
bisphosphate, yieldingActivationof Fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase and
inhibition of phosphofructokinase-1, thereby supporting the
genesisgluconeofrom glycolysis.
B. Abilitysubstrate: Precursor availabilitygluconeogenic, specificallyglucogenicamino
acids, significantly affect the rate of hepatic glucose synthesis.
• Decreased insulin levels support the mobilization of amino acids from muscle proteins,
and provide the frameworkcarbonfor gluconeogenesis.
• Additionally, ATP and NADH, coenzyme-cosubstrateneeded forgluconeogenesis,
mainly provided by fatty acid catabolism.
C. Activationallostericbyacetyl CoA:
Activationallosteric ofpyruvate carboxylasebyacetyl CoAoccurs during fasting.
As a result of the increaselipolysisin adipose tissue,liverflooded with fatty acids.
REFERENCE
● Victor Rodwell, David Bender, Kathleen M. Botham, P. Anthony Weil, Peter J. Kennelly,
2015, BAGIAN iv: metabolisme karbohidrat dalamHarper's Illustrated Biochemistry,
Edisi ke-30(Ilmu Dasar LANGE)-McGraw-Hill Medical ; hal:139- 210
● Bhagawan, NV, Ha, C., 2011, Pentingnya Biokimia Medis dengan Kasus Klinis, Elsevier
● Brosnan,JT. 2018. Glutamat, pada Persinggungan antara Asam Amino dan Metabolisme
Karbohidrat, J. Nutrisi 130 (Supl 9885-905).

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Translated from Indonesian to English - www.onlinedoctranslator.

• Is a glucose breakdown pathway to produce energy

● Glucose enters the glycolytic pathway by phosphorylation to glucose 6phosphate

● The formation of ATP follows through an enzyme-catalyzed phosphorylation

● An increase in the concentration of lactate in the blood is called lactic acidosis

• Solving processglycogento glucose-1-phosphate andglycogen

1. Branch chain shortening

• Precursorgluconeogenicare molecules that can be used to produce glucose.

a. Glucagonhormonesit comes from cellsαpancreatic

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