Visualizing Environmental

Science
The Environmental Challenges
We Face
Chapter A

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 A Rapidly Changing World
• Humans are the dominant
agent of environmental
change
– Humans transform the landscape
– Increasing populations are
overwhelming Earth’s regenerative
capacity
• Human activities have:
– Disrupted habitats of thousands of
species
• In 2015, a total of 22,784 species were
classified as threatened worldwide
– Profound effects on processes such as
nutrient cycles and climate
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Human Impacts on the Environment
• Earth’s human population exceeded 7.3 billion in 2015
– In 1960 = 3 billion; 1975 = 4 billion; 1987 = 5 billion

• World population may stabilize by the end of the 21 st century

– Population experts project anywhere from 7.7 to 10.6 billion,
depending on how rapidly the fertility rate decreases
– Current average fertility rate worldwide is 2.5 children per woman
– Fertility rates vary: 1.7 in highly developed countries compared to 4.5
in some of the least developed countries
– Even with most countries’ active involvement with family planning,
population growth rates take time to change

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Human Impacts on the Environment
• How many people the Earth can actually support is unknown
– This will depend on our ability to develop sustainable agricultural
practices that do not destroy the biological communities that
support life on the planet
– Consumption levels of materials and energy are also a factor
• Globally, about 1.5 billion people live in poverty
– A condition in which people are unable to meet their basic needs for
food, clothing, shelter, or health
– Poverty is associated with:
• Short life expectancy
• Illiteracy
• Inadequate access to health services, safe water, and balanced nutrition

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Human Impacts on the Environment
Human Population Growth

It took thousands of years for the human population to reach 1 billion (in 1800). In 2015,
Earth’s human population surpassed 7 billion. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Gap Between Rich and Poor Countries
• Countries are divided into rich and poor
• Rich countries are known as highly developed
countries
– Highly developed countries represent 18% of the world’s
population (US, Canada, Japan)
– They have complex industrialized bases, low rates of
population growth, and high per person incomes.
– People in highly developed countries consume more
resources per person than people in developing countries

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Gap Between Rich and Poor Countries
• Poor countries are known as moderately developed
countries (MDCs) or less developed countries (LDCs)
• 82% of the world’s population live in either MDCs
(such as Mexico, Turkey) or LDCs (such as Haiti,
Bangladesh)
– MDCs have:
• Medium levels of industrialization
• Lower per person incomes, and fewer opportunities
for education and health care than those in highly
developed countries

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Gap Between Rich and Poor Countries
– LDCs have:
• Very low per person incomes relative to those in
highly developed countries
• Low levels of industrialization, most economies are
agricultural
• High population growth rates
• High infant mortality rates
• Hunger, disease, and illiteracy are common

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Population, Resources, and the Environment
• The high rate of resource consumption in highly
developed countries affects the environment as much as
rapid population growth in other parts of the world
– During rapid population growth, simply providing the essentials
for survival can overwhelm a country’s natural resources
• Often a situation found in developing countries
• In highly developed countries, consumption of natural
resources far exceeds amounts needed for basic survival
– This depletion of resources extends past the boundaries of
individual countries and can affect resources globally
• Continued high-consumption lifestyles now rely on importation of
resources from less developed countries to sustain them

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Population, Resources, and the Environment
• Types of resources:
– Nonrenewable resources
• Natural resources that are present in limited supplies and
are depleted as they are used
– Fossil fuels
– Finite supply that took millions of years to form
– Renewable resources
• Resources that are replaced by natural processes and
that can be used forever, provided they are not
overexploited in the short term
– Trees, soil, water
– Potentially replaced by natural processes
Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Population, Resources, and the Environment
• Population size and resource consumption:
– At the same level of consumption, a larger population will consume
more resources than a smaller one
– However, globally, not all people consume the same amounts of
resources
• One child in a highly developed country has greater environmental
impact than 20 children in a developing country
• Highly developed nations represent less than 20% of the world’s
population and consume more than half of the world’s resources:
– 86% of the aluminum used
– 76% of timber harvested
– 68 percent of energy produced
– 61% of meat eaten
– 42% fresh water consumed
Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Population, Resources, and the Environment
• Ecological footprint:
– Amount of productive land, fresh air/water, and ocean, required
to supply one person with food, wood, energy, water, housing,
clothing, transportation, and waste disposal
– Allotted global footprint 4.3 acres
• (Amount of Earth’s productive land and water ÷ Global human
population)
– Average global footprint 6.9 acres
• This results in an ecological overshoot
– Ecological footprints of countries (not individuals) vary
depending on both population and consumption
• France’s total footprint is 783.6 million acres
• The US’s total footprint is 6943 million acres
Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Population, Resources, and the Environment
Ecological footprints

The average ecological footprint of a person The total ecological footprint for India,
living in India, France, or the United States France, and the United States

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Population, Resources, and the Environment
Ecological footprints

Earth’s ecological footprint has been increasing over time. By 2010, humans were using the
equivalent of 1.5 Earths, a situation that is not sustainable
Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Population, Resources, and the Environment
• Population, consumption, and environmental impact
– Human impacts on the environment are difficult to assess
– Mathematical models are utilized which use three most
important factors to determine environmental impact:
• The number of people (P).
• The affluence per person, which is a measure of the consumption, or
amount of resources used per person (A).
• The environmental effects (resources needed and wastes produced) of
the technologies used to obtain and consume the resources (T).
– This assessment method is known as the IPAT model:
• I = P × A × T.

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Sustainability and the Environment
• Sustainability:
– The ability to meet humanity’s current needs without
compromising future generations’ ability to meet their
needs
– Based on several ideas
• Economic, social, and environmental well being must all be
considered
• We must consider effects of our actions on the environment
• Earth’s resources are finite
• Understanding environmental and social costs of our consumption
• All Earth’s inhabitants have shared responsibility for living
sustainably

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Sustainability and the Environment
• Currently, human society is not operating sustainably, due to:
– Use of nonrenewable resources as if they were unlimited
– Use of renewable resources faster than they can be replenished
– We are polluting the environment with toxins as if its capacity to
absorb them was limitless
– Population continues to increase
– Human activities disrupt many natural regenerative processes
• Left unchecked, these activities may make recovery of many
depleted natural systems impossible
– Solutions are complex and challenging
– Ecological, social, and economic factors interact, making
sustainability difficult to achieve

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Sustainability and the Environment

Environmental sustainability requires a long-term perspective to promote economic,

social, and environmental well-being, such as the goals shown here
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 EnviroDiscovery: Green Roofs
• Green roof: Partially or
completely covered with
vegetation and soil
• Provide environmental
benefits
– Reduce heating costs in winter
and cooling costs in summer
– Filter rainwater pollutants
– Reduce stormwater in sewers
– Provide wildlife habitats
• New York City has increasing
numbers of green roofs
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 Global Environmental Issues
• While climate variation is
normal, global temperatures
are increasing at an
unprecedented rate
• Climate is affected by human
activities
- Increased release of CO2 and
other greenhouse gases into
the atmosphere
- Industrial processes
- Fossil fuel consumption
- Deforestation
- Land use change
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 Global Environmental Issues
• 13 million hectares of
forest lost annually
• Loss of biodiversity
• Loss of habitat for plants
and animals
• Deforested areas release
CO2 contributing to GCC
• Deforestation affects
local climates

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Global Environmental Issues
• Oceans cover two-thirds of the
Earth’s surface and are home to
half of the world’s biodiversity
• Over 70% of the world’s
commercial fish species are
depleted or nearing depletion
• 50% of coral reefs worldwide are
threatened by human activity
• Many factors cause ocean
stresses
- Overfishing
- Pollution
- Increased CO2 emissions
- Global climate change
- Coastal development
Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Global Environmental Issues
• Animal grazing and land
converted for agriculture
are main causes of
desertification
• Desertification causes
– Loss of topsoil
– Increased soil salinity
– Damaged vegetation
– Regional climate change
– Decline in biodiversity

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Global Environmental Issues

Polar ice cap melting at accelerated rate

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Global Environmental Issues

No corner of the earth is immune to pollution.

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Global Environmental Issues
Ozone Depletion

First noticed in the mid-1980’s the springtime “ozone hole” over the Antarctic continues to grow.
Restricting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone depleting chemicals have begun to level the rate
of depletion.
Stratospheric ozone shields the Earth from the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. Thinning of this protective
layer can have devastating effects on Earth’s biological functions.
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 Environmental Science
• Interdisciplinary study of humanity’s relationship
with other organisms and the physical environment
– Combines information from many fields
• Biology, physics, geology, geography, chemistry, economics,
sociology (including demography), cultural anthropology,
agriculture, engineering, law, politics, and ethics.
– Ecology is a basic tool of environmental science
• The study of interrelationships between organisms and the
environment
– Atmospheric science
– Environmental chemistry
– Geosciences Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Goals of Environmental Science
• Establish general principles about how the natural
world functions
• Develop viable solutions to environmental problems
• Identify, understand, and solve problems that we as
a society have created
• Focus on solving problems based on scientific
knowledge

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 Science as a Process
• Solutions to environmental problems require
comprehensive scientific information and evaluation
– Science is a body of knowledge AND a systematic process
– Science involves data collection and analysis/interpretation
– Science is not based on faith, emotion, or intuition
– Scientific observations and experiments must be repeatable
and produce consistent data to be considered valid
– Careful scrutiny by other scientists always part of the
scientific process
– Scientific understanding changes over time, as new
experiments and new data are undertaken and gathered

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Science as a Process
• The Scientific Method:
– The way a scientist
approaches a problem, by
formulating a hypothesis
and then testing it
– Five steps (see chart)

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 Science as a Process
• The importance of prediction:
– Scientists formulate hypotheses based on what they think to be
true based on prior scientific work
• Hypotheses are predictions that can be tested by experimentation
• Try to test one variable at a time and hold other constant
• Experimental group vs. control group
• May lead to a theory
– Theories are an integrated explanation of numerous hypotheses
• Each included hypothesis is supported by many observations and
experiments
• Theories clarify and simplify our understanding of the natural world
– Unfortunately, many environmental science questions are not able
to be formulated as testable hypotheses

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
How We Handle Environmental Problems
• There are five stages in addressing environmental
problems
1. Scientific assessment
2. Risk analysis
3. Public engagement
4. Political considerations
5. Long-term environmental management

Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
How We Handle Environmental Problems

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 EnviroDiscovery: NIMBY
• NIMBY = Not In My Back Yard
• Waste disposal sites are always controversial
– Hazardous or dangerous waste sites are especially
difficult to site
– Frequent failure by developers and public planners to
engage residents in decision-making process
• Yucca Mountain in Nevada
– Nuclear waste
• More sophisticated approaches to waste disposal
siting necessary in future
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 Case Study:
The New Orleans Disaster
• Hurricane Katrina, August
2005
– Increased damage due to human
alteration of the natural landscape
– Man-made canals facilitated salt
water killing marsh vegetation
– Levees prevented sediment
deposition
– Settlements were built on drained
wetlands
This satellite image shows flooding in New Orleans following
– New Orleans sinking due to lack of Hurricane Katrina. Along the left (west) side is a levee from Lake
bedrock, resulting from resource Pontchartrain (top) that failed so that water inundated the New
Orleans area east of the levee. Areas on the far left top remained dry.
removal Part of the Mississippi River is shown at lower center.

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