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Chapter 1:
Definition of terms & importance of field crops
 Crops - refers to plants sown and harvested by man for economic purpose.
 Field crops - often referred to as agronomic crops which are grown on a large scale
for human consumption, livestock feed and as raw materials for industrial products.
 Crop production-is a branch of agricultural science dealing with principle of crop
production and field management. It is a science of manipulating the cop
environment complex with dual aims of improving agricultural productivity and
gaining a degree of understanding of the process involved.
 Crop production- is basically conversion of environmental inputs like solar energy,
carbon dioxide, water and soil nutrients into economic products in the form of
human or animal food or industrial materials.
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Crop production: - is the practice/art/ of growing and harvesting of crops. Crop production is a complex
operation/process which consists of seed selection and preparation; site selection and clearing of
vegetation; seed bed preparation; sowing seeds; nutritional management (fertilizer and water);
controlling insect pest, diseases and weeds and harvesting.

Seed selection ?

Site selection ?

Clearing of vegetation ?

Seed bed preparation ?

Sowing of seeds ?

Nutritional management ?

Controlling of pests,diseases, weeds and

harvesting ?
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What are the importances of field crops?

Humans cannot survive without crop plants. It is used as:
 Food for human and feed for livestock: Human and other animals require
energy, amino acids vitamins, and minerals. From most important crops that
feed the world population Cereals (wheat, rice, maize, sorghum, barely)
crops are the major crops prior other types of crops.
 Textiles from fiber producing plants like Cotton, Sisal, flax.
 Prevent erosion
 To prepare local or national or international alcohol, soft drinks, sweets,
bakery products and jams
 Raw materials for industries
 Source of oxygen
 Used for production of pharmaceutical tablets, Drugs, paper and ethanol.
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 World population expansion & food supply

 Since the middle of the twentieth century, food demand has increased at an
unprecedented pace.
 Most of the growth has been demographic, with human numbers rising from 2.47
billion in 1950 to 6.06 billion in 2000 and 6.70 billion today.
 But living standards have also improved in recent decades where more than half the
human population resides. As a result, what we eat has changed substantially.
 However, expansion of farmland and pasture area is not increased similarly as the
expansion of world population. Instead, agricultural yields have increased, thanks to
the Green Revolution and other technological advances.
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 During the twentieth century (1950–1990), grain yields of cereals (wheat, corn, and
rice) tripled worldwide. Wheat yields in India, for example, increased by nearly
400% from 1960 to 1985, and yields of rice in Indonesia and China more than
doubled.
 The vastly increased production resulted from high-yielding varieties, improved
irrigation facilities, and the use of chemical fertilizers, especially nitrogen.
 For example when we compare the yields that obtained in our country from data
which was reported in 1999 and 2013, the variation in area under cultivation and
production in quintals is very small as compared to increment of yield of each
individual crop per hectares.
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Crops Area (ha) Production (q) Yield (q/ha)

Teff 2,091,000.34 16,422,000.85 7.85
Maize 1,303,000.10 24,166,000.24 18.55
Sorghum 1,042,000.39 13,208,000.41 12.67
Wheat 987,000.07 11,137,000.83 11.28
Barley 830,000.18 7,685,000.85 9.26
Millets 446,000.68 3,814,000.86 8.54
Oats 43,000.97 393,000.87 8.96
Source: Central Statistics Authority (1999);
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Yield of grain crops

Crops Area (ha) Production (q) Yield (q/ha)
Teff 2,730,272.95 37,652,411.66 13.79
Maize 2,013,044.93 61,583,175.95 30.59
Sorghum 1,711,485.04 36,042,619.65 21.06
Wheat 1,627,647.16 34,347,061.22 21.10
Barley 1,018,752.94 17,816,522.08 17.49
Millets 431,506.89 7,422,971.46 17.20
Oats 26,514.10 436,337.83 16.46
Rice 41,811.25 1,210,415.62 28.95

Source: Central Statistics Authority (2013);

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 The results were very significant in Asia and Latin America, where the term green
revolution was used to describe the process.
 Green revolution, defined as a commodity-centered increase in productivity, achieved by
changes in plant architecture, improved grain harvest index and photoperiod insensitivity,
resulted in the growth rate in food production exceeding the growth rate in population.
 The green revolution was the product of alteration in plant architecture and physiological
properties through breeding in wheat, rice, corn, sorghum, and other crops.
 The semi-dwarf plant stature contributed to providing adequate nutrition to the plant for
high productivity, without inducing lodging. It also increased the grain harvest index.
 Similarly, photo insensitivity helped to match the crop cultivar two seasons with
appropriate moisture availability.
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 Challenges and opportunity of crop production in Ethiopian?

 Challenges
 Most of agricultural practices are poorly supported by scientific
recommendations.
 Inadequate farmer skills and knowledge on production and product
management.
 Farmers attempt to select varieties and practice traditional crop
management practices.
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 Farmers’ know-how of product grading, packing and transporting is

traditional, which severely affects the quality of products supplied to the
market.
 Institutional factors that are related to the provision of improved crop
production technologies including supply of relevant varieties, agronomic
practices and improved product management techniques.
 Research based practical recommendations on agronomic practices and pre-
and post-harvest management are lacking at farmers level.
 Lack of inputs such as fertilizer, seed and pesticides on time and in adequate
amount.
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 Lack of proper quarantine

 Natural factors such as rainfall, water supply, flood and pests are often

beyond the control of farmers and institutions.

 Soil and soil related problems.

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 Infrastructure such as rural roads and means of communication for efficient

flow of goods and market information is a limiting factor.

 Most of the rural area is not accessible by vehicle.

 The products are transported to the road side by donkeys or by people.

 Moreover, there is no telephone or other fast communication systems to

access market information that would assist decision making.

 The country is highly dependent on rain fed agricultural production system

only.

 Culture, social, religion and political issues.

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 Opportunity
 Farming experience
 Existence of wide agro-ecological zone and its suitability for most crops
 Bimodal rain fall and availability of irrigation water on certain area
 Suitability of the lands for farm mechanization
 Depending of most of Ethiopian population’s on the agriculture
 Suitability of most of Ethiopian soils’ for crop production
 Adaptation of most crops.
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 Means for increasing crop production and productivity in Ethiopia

 Coherent multidisciplinary research programmes are required to develop new crop
production and protection strategies and farm mechanization technologies. For
example it is estimated that up to 40% of the world’s food would not exist without
crop protection products
 Providing access to good seed varieties (improved) which are suitable for use in a
particular climate is a fundamental step in improving crop yield.
 Use of manures and other organic fertilizers can help to increase organic matter in
soils; on their own they contain insufficient inorganic nutrients to meet the needs of
crops.
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 Land management is a key consideration in improving agricultural productivity, not

just in Ethiopia, but globally.
 Future agriculture will continue under the assumption that there is little or no new
land for food production.
 Some land that has been used for agriculture has become degraded over the years
due to poor farming practices (eg poor tillage, over-application of fertilizer), leading
to lower yields.
 A lack of consistent land management policies has meant that soil has become
depleted due to years of farming without replenishment of minerals and soil organic
matter.
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 Restoring poor-quality land

 Improving water/irrigation utilization efficiency
 Funding schemes should encourage multidisciplinary collaboration between scientists in
Africa and the rest of the world
 Educating the next generation of researchers is vital
 Enhancing extension services which are an important mechanism to communicate new
practices to farmers.
 The implementation of technology must address the needs of the end user in Ethiopian
agriculture (smallholders).
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 Define the following terms

- Crop
- Field crop
- Crop production
- Green revolution
 what are advantage of field crops ?
 Relationship b/n population and crop production?
 crop production ( 1. challenges 2. opportunity)
 Means of increasing crop production
- intensive agriculture (Vertical increase)
- extensive agriculture (Horizontal increase)
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CHAPTER 2: CLASSIFICATION OF CROP PLANTS

 A systematic method of grouping different plants is essential in identifying and
cataloging the voluminous information gathered about many different plants known.
 Since ancient time people have named and categorized many plants surrounded
them and upon which they are dependent for their existence.
 The earliest classification is simply divided plants into harmful ones and the useful
ones.
 Additionally, plants were probably divided according to their uses.
 However, to give classification of crops based on their use hardly possible to
communicate.
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 Importance of classifying the crops

 To get acquainted with crops
 To understand the requirement of soil & water for different crops
 To know adaptability of crops
 To know the growing habit of crops
 To understand climatic requirement of different crops
 To know the economic produce of the crop plant & its use
 To know the growing season of the crop
 Overall to know the actual condition required to the cultivation of plant
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 There are several ways of assigning plant to certain categories.

 But it is evident that all of these classifications resulted in huge overlaps.
 although they may have some general usefulness, therefore, they are inadequate for
precise identification.
 The system that is most precise and useful is that of botanical classification.
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 Botanical /Binomial/Scientific Classification

 Scientific nomenclature of plants was first classified by Carolus Linnaeus (1753).
 He developed binomial (two name) systems in which plants identified by both
genus and species.
 This system of nomenclature, which is universally accepted in the scientific
community, forms the basis for the science of classification known as plant
taxonomy.
 The first name (letter) is the genus name and the latter indicates species name.
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 This classification attempts to group plants according to their evolutionary relation-

ships, which is based on identification of ancestral plant forms.
 The basic groupings and most useful in botanical classification are family, genus,
species, and cultivars.
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 Poaceae (Graminae): Cereals, millets and grasses

 Papilionaceae (Legumes): Pulses, legume fodders, vegetables, groundnut, berseem,
green manures etc.
 Cruciferae: Mustard, Indian rape seed, radish cabbage, cauliflower etc.
 Cucurbitaceae: All gourds, cucumber, pumpkin etc.
 Malvaceae: Cotton, lady's finger, roselle etc.
 Solanaceae: Potato, tomato, tobacco, chillies, brinjal
 Tiliaceae: Jute
 Asteraceae (Compositae): Sunflower, safflower, niger
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 Chenopodiaceae: Spinach, sugar beet

 Pedeliaceae: Sesame
 Euphorbiaceae: Castor, tapioca
 Convolvulaceae: Sweet potato
 Umbelliferae: Coriander, cumin, carrot, anise
 Liliaceae: Onion, garlic
 Zingiberaceae: Ginger, turmeric
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Carolus Linnaeus (Swedish botanist and taxonomist), referred to as the father

of modern taxonomy. In 1749, Linnaeus laid the foundation for the classification
of living organisms when he introduced binomial nomenclature.
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 This system of classification is universally accepted and has many advantages:

 It is accurate and reduces giving multiple name for the same crop plants and no two
plants will have the same scientific name.
 It indicates the relationship between plants: for instance scientific name with the
same genus are derived from the same wild ancestor
 Example: Solanium tubersum - potato, Solanium melanogaster - egg plant
 These two crops have the same genus name and therefore are derived from the same
ancestor or have similar genetic background.
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 In this classification Plants are classified according to seven plant taxonomic

categories.

Kingdom --Division -- Class --Order -- family -- Genus –Species

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 What is the advantage of knowing plant relationship?

 In plant breeding knowing the relationship of plant is useful in order to get fertile
varieties .
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 Classification Based on ontogeny/ life span

 Plants may also be classified according to the duration of their life cycle/life span of the
plants (i.e. from seed, to seedling, to flowering, to fruiting, to death and back to seed) as
follows:

Annual crops - Crop plants that complete life cycle within a season or year. They produce seed
and die within the season. E.g. wheat, rice, maize, mustard.

Biennial crops - Plants that have life span of two consecutive seasons or years. First year/Season
these plants have purely vegetative growth usually confined to rosette of leaves. e.g., sugar beet,
beet root, cabbage, radish, carrot, etc.

Perennial crops - They live for three or more years. They may be seed bearing or non-seed
bearing.
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 Often take many years to mature.

 Unlike annuals and biennials these plants do not necessarily die after flowering
(seed setting) .

e.g., sugarcane, Napier grass. In general perennial crops occupy land for more than 30
months.
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 Agronomic Classification
 This type of classification of plants identifies a plant’s agricultural use.
 is a business convention and not an attempt to classify plants in a precise scientific
way.
 This system of classification of plant species’ is on the basis of how a crop will be
used.
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A . Cereal
 These groups belong to the grass family.
 are grasses grown for their edible seeds.
 They include wheat, rice, rye, sorghum, barley, oats and maize, which are the major
cereals.
 Cereals are among the world leading food and fed crops (high-energy food, easily
stored, easily transported because moisture content in seed at harvests usually 15%).
 Grass family includes about 3/4 of the cultivated forage crops and all of cereals.
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 Almost all members of grass family are herbaceous i.e.

 They have small main woody stems.
 Have fibrous root system
 Flowers are usually perfect (have both male and female parts of a flower in the same

 Flower (imperfect e.g. Maize)

 Grass family is annuals
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 cereals
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B. Legumes (pulses)
 These belong to the family Leguminacea.
 Pulses provide large amount of high quality protein.
 Normally human body needs more than 20 different amino acids to build the various
proteins it needs for growth, development, and maintenance.
 They include cowpeas, soybeans, groundnuts, field peas, beans, lentils and pigeon
peas.
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 Legume family may have

 Annuals, biennials or perennials
 Leaves are alternate on the stem
 Have tap root systems
 Roots have abnormal growth.
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 E.g. Soybean meal is as much as 40% protein comparable to some sources of animal
protein and far less expensive but more efficient, to produce.
 Groundnut also has high quality protein.
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C. Fiber crops
 Crops grown for fiber yield
 E.g. Cotton, steam, jute, hemp, flax. Ramie, sisal, kenaf.
D. Oil crops

 crop seeds rich in fatty acids, are used to extract vegetable oil to meet various
requirements.

E.g. Groundnut, Mustard, Sunflower, Sesame, linseed etc. Castor beans are grown for
non-edible oil.

E. Sugar crops

 These are Sugar cane (60% sugar come from this plant) and sugar beet (40%
sugar come from this plant).
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F. Root and tuber crops

 These are grown for their enlarged roots or tubers.
 Important root and tubers are cassava, sweet potatoes, potatoes, yam and cocoyams.
G) Drug crops
 These crops are smoked or chewed for their stimulating effect.
 They include tobacco and ‘bhang’ (Cannabis sativa).
H. Beverage crops
 These crops are also source of stimulants. They include coffee, tea and cocoa.
I. Vegetable crops
may be leafy as fruity vegetables. E.g., Brinjal or egg plant, tomato
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J. Forage crops
 These crops are grown as feed for ruminants.
 They are fed to the animals either fresh or in dried form, such as hay and silage.

k. Spices & condiments/spices crops

 crop plants as their products are used to flavor taste and sometime color the fresh
preserved food.

E.g. ginger, garlic, chili, cumin onion, coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
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 Special Purpose Classification

 The name of the group is often derived from the purpose for which the crop is used.
 This classification is usually self-explanatory.

A. Cover crops
 are those crop plants which are able to protect the soil surface from erosion.
 If a crop serves as a cover crop and is then turned under, it becomes also a green-
manuring crop.

E.g. groundnut, black gram, marvel grass, sweet potato, rye and vetch.
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B. Green - manure crops

Those crop which are grown to be plowed under or to be disked into the soil to
increase its productivity. As rule they are:
 Legumes are more desirable than non-legumes
 Fast growing crops
 High biomass production

E.g. Soybeans, cowpeas, vetches, clovers

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C. Catch or Emergency Crops

 Crops used as substitutes for staple crops that have failed on account of unfavorable
conditions.
 They are of very short duration, quick growing, harvestable or usable at any time of
their field duration and adaptable to the season, soil and management practices.

E.g. millet, beans, green gram, black gram, cowpea, onion, coriander and bajra.
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D. Trap crops

 are those crop plants grown to trap soil borne harmful parasitic weeds.

e.g., orabanche and nematodes by solanaceous crops

striga by sorghum

army worm pest by groundnut.

E. Companion crops

 It is an intercropping system i.e. growing of two or more crops on the same field and in the same

season.

 nourishes the main crop by way of nitrogen fixation and or adding the organic matter into the soil.

e.g., cowpea intercropped with cereals, glyricidia, tephrosia in tea.

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F. Smother crop

Crops produce heavy foliage, which suppresses population and growth of weeds by
preventing air and radiation movement.

G. Mulch crops

These crops grown to conserve soil moisture from the ground by their thick and
multilayer foliage ( e.g., cowpea…)

H. Soiling crops: Those cut green and feed green directly from the field. e.g. Alfalfa -
grasses, maize, as succulent stage.

I. Alley crop: crops grown in alley formed by trees or shrubs to increase soil
productivity and reduce soil erosion.
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 Classification based on mode of reproduction

1. Sexual: Plants that develop from a seed or spore after undergoing union of male and
female gametes

2. Asexual: Plants which reproduce by any vegetative means without the union of the
sexual gametes
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A. Native: crops grown within the geographical limits of their origins (teff in Ethiopia).
B. Exotic or introduced: crops introduced from other countries (maize from America).
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 According to source of water

A. Irrigated crops: The crop cultivation primarily depends upon the irrigation water
for a part/entire growth period of the crop.

E.g. Chili, sugarcane, Banana, papaya etc.

B. Rain fed crops: The crop cultivation entirely depends upon the rainfall received.
Crop varieties depend upon the rainfall pattern.

E.g. Bajara, Mung etc.

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 Classification based on water requirement

a) Hydrophytes (or aquatics) - require large amounts of water and may in fact grow
submerged in water. E.g. rice (among cultivated crops it is the only hydrophytes plants)

b) Mesophytes - require moderate amounts of water. E.g. most crop plants.

c) Xerophytes - require little amount of water.

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 According to tolerance to problem soils

A. Tolerant to acidic soils: Wet rice, potato, mustard, etc.

B. Tolerant to saline soils: Chillies, cucurbits, wheat, sorghum, bajra, cluster beans,
barley etc.

C. Tolerant to alkali soils: Barley, cotton, Bengal gram, berseem, sunflower, maize,
etc.

D. Tolerant to waterlogged soils: Wet rice, daincha, para grass, napier grass, guinea
grass, etc.

e. Crops tolerant to soil erosion: Marvel grass, groundnut, black gram, rice bean,
moth bean, and horse gram, etc.
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 According to the depth of root system

a. Shallow rooted crops: Rice, potato, and onion

b. Moderately deep rooted: Wheat, groundnut, castor and tobacco

c. Deep rooted: Maize, cotton, and sorghum

d. Very deep rooted: Sugarcane, safflower, lucerne, and red gram

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 According to the tolerance to hazardous weather condition

a. Frost tolerant: Sugar beet, beet root.

b. Cold tolerant: Potato, cabbage, and mustard.

c. Drought tolerant: Bajra, barley, safflower, castor.

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 According to method of sowing/planting

a. Direct seeded crop: Where the seeds are sown directly. e.g. upland rice, wheat,
groundnut etc.

b. Planted crops: Where plant parts are planted directly. e.g., sugarcane, potato, sweet
potato, guinea grass.

c. Transplanted crops: Where seedlings are raised in the nursery, pulled out and
planted in the field. e.g. rice, tobacco, bellary onion.
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 According to length of field duration of crops

a. Very short duration crops (up to 75 days): pulses

b. Short duration crops (75-100 days): sunflower, cauliflower, upland rice

c. Medium duration crops (100-125 days): wheat, jowar, bajra, groundnut, sesame,
jute, etc.

d. Long duration crops (125–150 days): mustard, tobacco, cotton

e. Very long duration crops (>150 days): sugarcane, red gram, castor, etc.
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 Based on climatic condition

a. Tropical crop: coconut, sugarcane

b. Sub-tropical crop: rice, cotton

c. Temperate crop: wheat, barley

d. Polar crop: all pines, pasture grasses

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 Classification based on Range of cultivation

 Garden crops: They are grown on a small scale in gardens. e.g., onion, brinjal, etc.
 Plantation crops: They are grown on a large scale in estates and perennial in
nature. e.g., tea, coffee, cacao, rubber etc.
 Field crops: They are grown on a vast scale under field condition. They are mostly
seasonal such as rice, wheat, cotton etc.
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 According to moisture availability in the soil

 Wet lands
 The soil moisture is allowed to occupy both macro and microspores. Anaerobic field
condition prevails here.
 Crops suitable are those crops, which tolerate water stagnation. e.g., green manures like
sesbania group, grasses etc.
 Dry lands
 The soil moisture is allowed only on to microspores.
 Macro pores are filled with air. Magnitude of soil moisture varies according to the crop.
Crops like maize, highly sensitive to excess moisture and drought, crops tolerant to
drought and temporary stagnation, sorghum are cultivated in this type of field condition.
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 According to the suitability of the textural groups of soils

 Crops suitable to sandy to sandy loam (light) soils: Sorghum, bajra, green gram,
sunflower, potato, onion, carrot etc
 Crops suitable to silty loam (medium) soils: Jute, sugarcane, maize, cotton, mustard,
tobacco, Bengal gram, red gram, cowpea, etc
 Crop suitable to clay loam (heavy) soils: Rice, wheat, barley, linseed, lentil, para
grass, guinea grass, marvel grass etc.
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 Scientific classification
 Scientific classification gives binomial name for every organism.
 The name composed of two names.
 Scientific name is written in italics or underline.
 No two organisms can have the same name throughout the world.
 The botanical name is often followed by a letter or letters which stand for the
botanist who named that plant.

e.g Coffea Arabica L. Solanum tubersum L.

If the original botanical name of a plant is later changed, the original classifier is still
noted in parentheses. e.g Xanthosomas agittifolium (L) (Schott)
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 Easy to communicate for researcher

 Not easy to pronounce, remember and not pleasure to ear
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 common name
 Are not specific
 differ from area to area
 difficult to communicate across World
 no rule to name
 do not show any information about the species
 Different plants may have the same common name.
 May not exist for some plants
 Easy to pronounce, Easy to remember, More pleasure to ear
 More familiar to the people who give the name
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 Under binomial/scientific classification

 close to 300,000 different species of plants have been classified.
 from this only 30,000 have value in food and feed production and
 only 15 species make a significant contribution to the food supply of the world
(Rice, Wheat, Maize, Barley, Sorghum, Sugar cane, Sugar beet, Potato, Sweet
potato, Cassava, Bean, Peanut, Soybean, Coconut and Banana)
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 Basic assumptions in scientific classification

 Organisms exhibit various degrees of similarities and differences among individuals
and groups.
 Those organisms that are similar in nearly all aspects are a species.
 Species that share some of their features comprise a genus.
 On the basis of their shared features, similar genera can be organized in to a family.
 likewise, families and larger groups can be organized in to successfully higher level
of a taxonomic hierarchy.
 The greater the similarity among organisms and among groups, the closer is their
relationship.
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 In botanical classification i.e based upon their similarity, Organisms grouped to

five kingdoms /plantae, animalia, monera, fungi and protosta/.
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 Plants categorized in to two as Flowering and non-flowering.

 Flowering plants are the most important division in terms of crop production
because practically all the economically important food, feed and fiber belongs to
this group.
 Non flowering plants consists of mosses, ferns and gymnosperms
 Gymnosperms are those forest trees
 seeds are not enclosed in ovary
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 less advanced type; about 700 species of gymnosperms are known

 Have needle-shaped leaves
 Flowering (Angiosperms) – the seed is enclosed in ovary divided in to two
 Monocotyledon - seed having one cotyledon
 Di cotyledon- Seed having two cotyledon
 About 250,000 species are known
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 Chapter Three : Factors affecting field crops production

 Crop productivity (yield) refers to the utilizable plant part which is not the same for
every crops.
 Factors affecting crop production can be divided in to internal and external factors.
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1. Internal factors
 High yielding ability
 Early maturing
 Resistant to lodging
 Drought, flood & salinity tolerance
 Tolerance to insect pests & diseases
 Chemical composition of grain
 These characters are less influenced by environmental factors.
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2. External factors (Environmental factors)

A. Climate

B. Edaphic

c. Biotic

d. Physiographic

e. Socio-economic
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A. Climatic Factors

Nearly 50 % of yield is attributed to the influence of climatic factors. Weather

variables which influence the crop production are:
 Precipitation
 Temperature
 Atmospheric humidity
 Solar radiation
 Wind velocity
 Atmospheric gases
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 Precipitation (water)
 Precipitation includes all water which falls from atmosphere such as rainfall, snow,
hail, fog & dew.
 The importance of water to the living plant can be summarized in general functions.
Water serves:

fog fog dew hail snow

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1. It is the major constituent of the living cell.

2. Water in the living cell is the universal solvent that allows critical chemical
reactions to occur.

3. Water is the solvent that carries essential nutrients through the plant.

4. It is required for transpiration cooling.

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 Effect of low moisture stress

loss of turgor: this affects cell expansion and cell size which resulting in decrease
growth rate, leaf expansion and stem elongation, finally crop yield.

Effect on water relation in plants: water deficit alters plant water status by its effect
on transpiration, absorption and translocation.

Effect on photosynthesis: water deficit induced a reduction of photosynthesis due to

reduction in source size (leaf area) caused by poor expansion rate of leaves and stomata
closure.

Effect on metabolic reaction: water deficit affects almost all-metabolic reaction.

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 Effect on nutrition metabolism: water deficit causes a reduction of uptake of

nutrients (N, P, K), fixation and assimilation of nitrogen. Nitrogen assimilation is
affected by moisture stress due to reduction in nitrate reductase activity.
 Effect on yield and yield components of crops
 Drought
 Low rainfall or failure of seasonal rainfall is a recurring feature in Ethiopia. This has
been responsible for droughts and famines.
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 Plant Adaptations to Moisture Stress

Drought Resistance (tolerance)
Drought Escapes
 Early maturity
 Developmental plasticity - matches growth to water availability
 Seed dormancy
Drought Avoidance
 Improving water up take
 By restricting transpiration
 Dehydration Tolerance
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 Effect of excessive moisture (water logging)

 Excessive moisture can reduce crop yields.
 It is caused due to heavy rainfall and continuous rainfall and faulty irrigation
coupled with poor drainage condition of the soil.
 In general, yield reduction due to excessive moisture is related to:
 Poor aeration of the soil and reduced oxygen supply for the plant’s respiratory
needs.
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 Leaching of nitrate and denitrification occurs resulting in nitrogen deficiency.

 Favor the development and spreads of fungal disease
 Excessive moisture late in growing season can delay flowering and lead to poor seed
set and lower quality seed.
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 As a general
 Rainfall is one of the most important factor influences the vegetation of a plant.
 Amount of distribution of rainfall greatly affects the choice of a cultivated species in
a place.
 Rainfall has major influence on yield of crops, yield are not always directly
proportional to the amount of precipitation as excess above optimal reduces yield.
 Distribution of rainfall is more important than total rainfall.
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 Plants take up much water than they actually use the chemical reactions taking place
in them.
 More than 95% of water that enters the roots moves up through the xylem and is
lost in the form of water vapor through transpiration as water vapor is given off
because of evaporation more water is absorbed from the soil.
 Water loss by evaporation is not available for plant growth.
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 Temperature
 Temperature is a measure of intensity of heat energy.
 The minimum, maximum and optimum temperature of individual plants is called
cardinal temperature.
 The range of temperature for maximum growth of most of the agricultural plants is
between 15-400C.
 Germination, growth and development of crops are highly influenced by
temperature.
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 Temperature affects leaf production, expansion and flowering.

 Physical and chemical processes within the plants are governed by air temperature.
 Diffusion rate of gases and liquids changes with temperature.
 Solubility of different substances in plants dependent on temperature.
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 Temperature directly influences:

 Photosynthesis
 Respiration
 Cell wall permeability
 Nutrient and water absorption
 Transpiration
 Enzyme activity
 Effect of High Temperatures
 Desiccation injury

 Effect of low temperature

 Freezing injury
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 Crop Management and Temperature

 Adjusting planting date: certain crops required specific soil temperature for
germination. As a rule, maize should not be planted until the soil temperature reaches
130C, 170C for cotton, 180C for sorghum to avoid low temperature effect.
 Selection of crop varieties. There are varietals differences in adapting low/high
temperature.
 Use of sprinkler irrigation: sprinkler application of irrigation water helps for physical
heat exchange.
 Use of funs: stirring warmer air with lower air which increased by 1 -3 0C.
 Use of heaters: used in small areas (orchards) by switching light to rise the
surrounding temperature.
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 Relative humidity
 Water is present in the atmosphere in the form of invisible water vapor, known as
humidity.
 R.H is the ratio b/n the amount of moisture present in the air to the saturation capacity of
the air.
 Relative humidity (RH) directly influences

the water relations of plant

indirectly leaf growth, photosynthesis, occurrence of diseases and family

economic yield.
 40-60% is suitable for most of the crop plants.
 > 80 outbreak of pest and disease.
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 When radiation is strong and temperature is high, low RH can restrict plant growth

significantly.
 Excessive RH retards the flow of water through the plant, thereby reducing the
supply of minerals and the transfer of hormones synthesized in the roots to its
various organs.
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 Light
 Solar energy provides two essential needs of plants.
 Light (visible portion of radiation or PAR) is required for photosynthesis, seed
germination, leaf expansion, growth of stem and shoot, flowering and fruiting
(photo morphogenesis).
 Light affect plant growth in the following ways;

1. Chlorophyll synthesis

2. Stomatal action

3. Rate of transpiration
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 Three characteristics of light, which affect crop growth development, are

 Intensity (quantity) : total amount of light
 Quality: Composition of light as to wavelengths that are effective in photosynthesis.
 Duration (day length)
 Absence of light (etiolated plant) Seedling in light ?
- Seedling becomes week - short, healthy seedling
- Long and thin - growth continuous, green expanded leaves
- Chlorophyll pigment does not develop
and seedling pigment, remain peal yellow
(chlorotic) and finally seedling died
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 Duration of light
 Short day plants: These plants require a minimum critical period of sun
hours (less than 10 hrs) to initiate flowers and seed formation.
 Long day plants: These plants require a maximum critical sun light
hour (>14 hrs) to initiate flowers and seed formation.
 neutral plants: These types of plants do not affect by the duration of
light hours.
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 wind
 Wind influences agriculture and agricultural practices in various ways.
 When wind is hot, it accelerates the desiccation of the crop by replacing the humid
air by dry air.
 With increase in wind velocity, there is greater increase in cuticular transpiration
than stomatal transpiration.
 Strong wind in association with rain causes lodging, particularly at flowering in
cereal.
 Provision of windbreaks in areas can minimize the adverse effects of wind speed.
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 The basic function of wind is to carry moisture and heat.

 Wind movement for 4-6 km/hr. is suitable for more crops
 Wind dispersal of seeds is natural and necessary for certain crops
 Causes soil erosion
 Helps in cleaning farm
 Increase evaporation
 Spread of pest
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 Atmospheric gases
 Global warming owing to emission of greenhouse gases has emerged as an
important issue in the last two decades. The six major gases responsible for global
warming are:
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Methane (CH4)
 Nitrous oxide (N2O)
 Hydroflurocarbons (HFCs)
 Perfluoro carbons (PFCs) and
 Sulphurhexafluorides (SHFs)
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B. Edaphic/Soil factors
The soil in which crops are grown can be defined as the upper weathered part of the
earth’s crust that support plant life.
 Indeed, soil supports plant life in
 It supplies moisture and essential nutrient.
 It provides anchorage for the root of the plant- it is a medium flourishing plant
growth.
 Physical Properties of Soil : texture and structure
 Chemical Properties of Soil: Cation Exchange capacity (CEC), Soil PH??internet
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 Texture - the mineral part of a soil which composed of different proportions of soil

particles, such as Sand, silt, and clay

Coarse sand = 2.0 - 0.2 mm in diameter

Fine sand = 0.2 - 0.02 mm in diameter

Silt = 0.02 - 0.002 mm in diameter

Clay = < 0.002mm in diameter

 Soil texture is important in agriculture for several reasons:
 Easy of cultivation: light sandy soils verses heavy clay
 Water holding capacity and irrigation requirement is affected by soil texture
 The adsorption of nutrients.????
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 Soil structure: Soil structure is a field term descriptive of the gross, overall
aggregation, or arrangement of soil particles.
 It influences water movement, heat transfer, aeration, bulk density and porosity
of the primary soil separates.
 Infiltration rate of water is rapid in granulated soil.
 Infiltration rate of water is moderate in blocky and prismatic.
 Infiltration rate of water is slow in platy soil.
 A soil is said to be of good structure when the air and water move through it at
desired rate (soil of its occupied by pore spaces).
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 Soil factors that affect crop growth are

 Soil moisture
 Soil air
 Soil temperature
 Soil mineral matter
 Soil organic matter
 Soil organism
 Soil reactions
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 Soil moisture
 It is a universal solvent on which most chemical reactions takes place
 85-95 % of the weight of living plant tissue is water
 Water is a media through which most chemical substances move with it.
 Nutrient availability and mobility increases with increasing soil moisture
 Can adjust the soil temperature
 It is important for photosynthesis
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 Soil air: The percentage by volume of soil occupied by air at a given suction has
been suggested as a measure of soil aeration status. As bulk density increased soil
compaction also increase that leads to minimize soil pore spaces.
 Aeration of soil is absolutely essential for the absorption of water by roots
 Germination is inhibited in the absence of oxygen
 Soil air is required for respiration of roots and micro organisms
 Soil air is essential for nutrient availability?
 For proper decomposition of organic matter
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 Soil temperature
 High soil temperature is more critical as damage to the roots is severe resulting in
substantial reduction in shoot growth.
 The energy received from the sun is absorbed by the soil, which is converted into
heat.
 The flow of the temperature in the soil is expressed as thermal conductivity.
 It increases with water content and decreases with porosity.
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 Soil temperature
 Influences the rate of absorption of water and solutes (nutrients).
 Affect the germination of seeds and growth rate of underground portion of the
plant.
 Controls the microbial activity and processes involved in the nutrient availability.
 Soil mineral matter
 The mineral content of the soil is derived from weathering of rocks and minerals as
particles of different size.
 These are the sources of plant macro and micro nutrients.
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 Soil organic matter

 Soil Organic Matter is a portion of the soil that includes plant and animal remains at
various stages of decay.
 It includes fresh and highly decomposed crop residues , as well as the decomposing
bodies of soil flora, fauna and microorganisms.
 Maintaining organic matter in the soils at optimum level is essential to sustain
reasonable crop productivity.
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 Role of organic matter

 Improves soil physical, chemical and biological properties
 Improves water holding capacity of soil
 Enhance the supply of nutrients particularly N, P and S
 Increases soil porosity, Improve the water infiltration rate and aeration
 Reduces the nutrient loses by leaching
 Decrease soil erosion by wind and water
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 Soil organism
 Soil consists of the following various types and forms of plant and animal life

fauna
 fauna- earth worm, termites, ants, snails, centipedes, millipedes, etc
 -fauna- protozoa, nematodes etc.

flora
 -flora- plant roots, macro algae
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 Role of soil organisms

 Soil forming activity- earth worm, termites etc.
 Contributing significantly to the soil physical and chemical properties improvement
especially in the transformation of organic matter and plant nutrients
 Decomposition of soil organic matter (plant and animal residues).
 The rate of transformation of most nutrients into available forms is controlled by
microbial activity in the soil.
 Nitrogen fixation by N-fixing bacteria (free living or symbiotic bacteria).
 Solubilization of insoluble phosphate by several types of soil micro-organisms
(Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae).
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 Soil reaction (pH)

 Soil reaction is the pH (hydrogen ion concentration) of the soil.
 Soil may be acidic (<7.0), neutral (=7.0), alkaline or saline (>7.0).
 Neutral soils are best for growth of most crops.
 Low pH also interferes with availability of other plant nutrients.
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C. Biotic factors

1. Diseases
 Plant that showed any deviation from normal functioning of physiological processes
said to be diseased plant. These functions include

cell division

development

absorption of water and minerals

photosynthesis and

translocation of photosynthetic production

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 Classification of plant diseases

A. Infectious or biotic disease

- Fungi

- Bacteria

- Nematodes

- Viruses

B. Non-infectious or abiotic diseases

- Too low or too high temp.

- Lack or excess moisture

- Nutrient deficiencies

- Lack of O2
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2. Insects
 Insects are pests when they reduce the quantity or quality of foods, feed or fiber
damage commodities.

transmit disease causing organisms.

damage ornamental plants, lawns or flowers

damage homes or other personal property

 Some insect pest’s species are actually pests at a certain stage and beneficial at the
other insect.
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3. Weed

A weed can be defined in a number of ways.

i) a weed is a plant that has no economic value, with a negative value, whose
potentialities for harm are greater than its potentialities for good and that
competes with plant for soil, moisture, and light.

ii) In general, weeds are often defined as any plants growing where man does not
want them. Therefore, a particular plant is a weed only in terms of human
altitude.

iii) A plant of a useful crop is a weed when it grows in a stand of another crop when
it is undesirable ex maize in teff field.
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 Weeds are growing only where we want other plants to grow (on arable land, on
pastures, on horticultural land, on forest land, etc.) or where we want no plants at all
(irrigation and drainage ditches, industrial sites, along roads and railways, on air
fields).
 Weeds encompass all types of undesirable plants, such as trees, bushes, broad-
leaved plants, grasses, sedges, aquatic plants, and flowering plants.
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4. Animals
 Soil fauna like protozoa, nematode, snails and insects help in organic matter
decomposition.
 Honey bee and other insects help in crop pollination and increase yield.
 Burrowing earthworm facilities aeration and drainage of water.
 Large animals cause damage to crop plants by grazing (cattle, goats…).
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D. Socio-economic factors
 Labor allocation
 Choice of crop and crop varieties
 Economic condition of the people
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 Chapter Two: Cropping system

 refers to a set of crop systems, making up the cropping activities of a farm system.
 cropping system usually refers to a combination of crops in time and space.
 In general, cropping system is the kind and sequence of crops grown on a given
area of land over a period of time.
 It may be a regular rotation of different crops or it may be consisting of only one
crop, year after year on the same land.
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 Classification of Cropping System

Cropping systems are classified based on the following criteria:

1. The distribution of crops in time, i.e. whether shifting cultivation or continuous

cropping, monoculture or crop rotation is practiced.

2. The distribution of the crops in space on the field, i.e. whether intercropping or
sole cropping is practiced.

3. The level of management and resources utilized to produce the crop, i.e. whether
production is intensive or extensive.

4. The type of crop grown, i.e. whether orchard, arable cropping, pasturing,
forestry, etc. is practiced.
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 Shifting cultivation and continuous cropping

A. Shifting cultivation
 a piece of land is cleared, farmed for a few years and then abandoned in preference
for a new site.
 While the new site is being farmed, natural vegetation is allowed to grow on the old
site. Eventually, after several years of bush fallows, the farmer returns to the original
location. In this system, the farm is not at a permanent location.
 Common features of shifting cultivation

1. The farmer first selects a site which has been under bush fallow for several years.

2. Clears the vegetation by burning.

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3. Crops are then grown on the field for one, two or three years, starting with crops
with high nutrients requirement and ending with crops that has low nutrients
requirement.

4. Low levels of technology, input and management.

5. Most of the operations are carried out using simple hand tools and the labor
requirement is high while the yield is correspondingly low.
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 Advantages of burning plant debris

 Simple and inexpensive
 Kills crops pests
 Produce ash that contain Ca, and K that applied to acidic soil.
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 Disadvantage of shifting cultivation

 Beneficial microorganisms may be destroyed
 Low content of organic matter
 It tends to discourage high level of inputs.
 Because the farms stays in one location only for a short while, there is no incentive
to invest in permanent structures such as store sheds, irrigation and even certain
pest, control soil erosion or soil conservation measure that may have a long-term
benefits.
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 It requires a great deal of land to maintain the system.

 Low efficiency in land utilization.
 Low efficiency in labour utilization.
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 SALALE UNIVERSITY

B. Continuous Cropping
 It refers to growing of crops on a piece of land year after year.
 Advantages of Continuous Cropping

1. Land utilization under continuous cropping is extremely efficient. A very high

percentage of land is under crops at any given time.

2. It is possible and economically feasible, to make permanent structures on the

farm site.
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 Agricultural practices for maintaining soil fertility under continuous cropping

 Application of fertilizers and other soil amendments in order to boost fertility.
 Judicious selection of the crops and crop combinations to be grown. Crop rotations
and carefully planned intercrop combination are indispensable.
 Introducing short term fallow periods in to the cropping cycle. A leguminous cover
crop can be planted on the fallow land so as to aid the fixation of nitrogen by
legumes during the fallow period and through increasing the soil organic matter
content when the fallow crop is ploughed under
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 SALALE UNIVERSITY

 Mono cropping/Monoculture and Crop Rotation

A. Mono cropping/Monoculture
 This is the practice of growing of only one crop on a piece of land year after year.
 It permits maximum concentration of production effort on a single target crop.
 For example sugar cane farming in the farms of sugar cane factory.
 Disadvantages of monoculture

1. In monoculture diseases and pests of the particular crop always have their host present, and
therefore have the opportunity to build up over the years.

2. Monoculture encourages rapid depletion of soil nutrients and destruction of the soil
structures.

3. The risk of crop failure is great and ever present.

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 Advantages of monoculture
 The main advantage of monoculture is that it permits maximum concentration of
production effort on a single target crop.
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B. Crop Rotation
 The practice of growing different kinds of crops, one at a time, in a definite
sequence on the same piece of land is referred to as crop rotation.
 In designing a good crop rotation, the farmer must decide what crops to have in the
rotation, in what sequence the crops should occur and for how many years or season
each cycle of the rotation must run.
 Advantage of crop rotation

A. Pest Control: it is an effective means of controlling weed, diseases and insect pests.
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The pathogens and insect pests of a particular crop are more likely to die off when
their host crop is followed by a completely different non-host crop.
Rotation may include smother crop as a means of controlling certain weeds.

B. maintenance of soil fertility

 A good rotation that provides for maintenance or improvement of soil productivity
usually includes a legume crop to promote fixation of nitrogen.

C. production of different types of output

D. It reduces risk
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 Principles of crop rotation

 The selection of crops to be grown in rotation should be decided based on following

principles
 The leguminous crop should be grown after non-leguminous crop Because legumes
fix atmospheric nitrogen into the soil and add more organic matter to the soil, while
non-legumes are fertility depleting crops.
 Crops which are deep feeders should alternate with shallow feeders

 This helps in proper and uniform use of nutrients and water from the soil and the

roots do not compete with each other.

 Crops of different families should be grown in rotation
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 Selection of the crops should be demand based.

 Selection of crop should be problem based.
 Fertility-depleting crop should be grown after fertility-building crop.
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 SALALE UNIVERSITY

 Sole cropping and Multiple cropping

 Sole Cropping: is growing of one type of crop on the piece of land within a year.
 Multiple cropping : growing of two or more crops on the same piece of land within a year.
 It refers to intensification of cropping both in time and space dimensions.
 It includes sequential cropping and intercropping. i.e. more number of crops within a year
and more number of crops on same piece of land in given time.

 Sequential cropping: it can be defined as growing of two or more crops in a sequence on the
same piece of land in a farming year.

 The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested. Depending on the
number of crops grown in a year, it is called as double, triple and quadruple involving two,
three and four crops, respectively.
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 SALALE UNIVERSITY

 Intercropping : is growing of two or more dissimilar crops simultaneously on the

same piece of field.
 The objective is the intensification of cropping both in time and space dimensions
and to raise productivity per unit area by increasing the pressure of plant population.
 It has better utilization of growth resources than sole cropping.
 Generally, legumes and non-legumes are grown.
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Maize-legume intercropping
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 Types of intercropping practices

1. Row intercropping: is growing of two or more crops in separate rows.

2. Mixed cropping: is the two or more crops simultaneously intermingled without row
pattern or at random with each other. Seeds of different crops are mixed in a certain
proportion and are sown. The objective is to meet the family requirement of cereals,
pulses and vegetables.

3. Relay cropping: It refers to planting of succeeding crop before the harvest of

preceding crop.
 Both the first and second crops spend most of their field lives as sole crop, and grow
together on the field for only a brief period.
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Row intercropping mixed cropping relay cropping

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 Principles of intercropping

 The crops having complementary effect should be preferred over those having
competitive effect.

 The two crops should have different lengths of growing period i.e., one crop should
be of short duration and other of long duration.

 The plants of both the crops should be different in growth habit. , i.e. one' should be
tall and other dwarf. Similarly, one crop should be shallow rooted whereas the other
should be deep rooted.
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 One crop should have low water and nutrient requirement. whereas the other
should have higher water and nutrient requirements.

 Erosion-permitting crop should be intercropped with erosion-resistant crop.

 The nutrient requirement of each crop should be met with separately to

eliminate competition between them.
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 Advantages of intercropping
Additional income from the companion crop

There is a more efficient utilization of the available resources. It provides better utilization
of different resources like water, nutrients, land and labor. Farmers get all their required
agricultural commodities from a limited space. Thus profit per unit area is increased.
Prevents complete failure of crops. If the principal crop is damaged due to unfavorable
conditions like drought, flood, epidemics, etc., companion crop may give sustenance
income. When one component of an intercrop combination fails, the other combinations are
able to utilize the resources that would have been available to the failed crop and so yield
better than they would have done otherwise. In other words there is yield stability.
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 Certain crops may exert specific beneficial effect on others.

For example, in an intercrop of a legume with a cereal crop, the cereal would benefit
from the nitrogen fixed by the legumes.
Weed infestation and management are less because of smothering effect.

Quick growing companion crops always suppress the harmful weeds thriving in the
inter-spaces of the principal crops.
It helps to prevent soil erosion compared with sole cropping.
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The spread of diseases and pests is less rapid than in sole cropping.

In many instances, the other component crops are not susceptible to the particular
disease or pest may not affect the other component and may act as physical barriers
to the spread of diseases and pest.
Intercropping allows for a more uniform distribution of labor throughout the year.
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 Disadvantages of intercropping

 Since many crops exist together on the field, it is difficult to apply production practices to the
needs of any particular crop:

 The fertilizer management is difficult because the nutrient requirement of the crops is
different

 Control of pests and diseases is particularly difficult. because pesticides which have been
developed to control a disease on one particular component crop may have deleterious effect
on other crops in the combination.

 It is difficult to mechanize operations such as planting, weeding and harvesting. Difficulty in

harvesting because of different seeding time of crops

 The sowing of intercrops is slightly different and requires more time, hence difficult to be
adopted by large farmers.
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Chapter 3: Agronomic practices/Crop husbandry/

Seed and seed quality
 Seed is a ripen ovule containing an embryo in arrested state of development usually
with a food reserve and a protective coat.
 Seed is a fertilized ovule consisting of three main parts namely seed coat,
endosperm and embryo.
 In seed technological term, the part of the seed for growing purpose to raise the crop
is considered as seed.
 Embryo gives rise to a new plant. it is a rudimentary plant present in axis form with
one tip known as plumule responsible to form shoot portion and other tip known as
radicle, forms the root.
 The portion of embryonic axis extended above the cotyledon is known as epicotyls
and below the cotyledon as hypocotyls.
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 Endosperm is the storage organ for food substance that nourishes the embryo during its
development. it is a thick and massive structure made up if elongated cells containing
abundant starch.
 Seed coat is the outer cover that protects or shields the embryo and endosperm from
desiccation, mechanical injury, effect of environmental fluctuations and damage due
to insects and micro-organisms.
 Cotyledon:- it is the extension of the embryo, on the basis of number of cotyledon,
the crop species are divided into two groups
1. Monocotyledonous: one cotyledon is present.
2. Dicotyledonous:- two cotyledon are present.
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Types/Classes of seeds
 Breeder seed or nucleus seeds: - is the small quantity of seed representing the first product
of breeding program that is maintained by the breeders. They are directly controlled by the
originator or in some cases by the sponsoring plant breeder or institution.
 Foundation/basic seeds:- It is produced as a result of multiplication of breeder seeds and is
handled to maintained specific genetic identity and purity. Foundation seed is the source of
all other certified seed classes, either directly or through registered seed.
 Registered seeds:- These are the progeny of foundation. It is carefully handled so as to
maintain satisfactory genetic identity and purity that has been approved and certified by the
certifying agency. This class of seed should be of quality suitable for production of certified
seed.
 Certified seeds: - it is seeds in the final stage of the certification process that farmers can
purchase.
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 On the basis of life span, seeds can be divided into three categories.
 Microbiotic seeds, which have a life span that does not exceed 3 years
 Mesobiotic seeds, which have a life span varying from 3 to 15 years
 Macrobiotic seeds, which have a life span ranging from 15 to more than 100 years
 Based on their storage behavior, seeds are categorized into
 Orthodox: seeds are tolerant to both drying and low temperature
 Seeds that survive long term dry storage
 Shed in a relatively dry condition, and can be dried to low moisture contents (<
5%) without losing viability. They can be stored for many years at ambient
temperatures.
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Intermediate: Those which can be dried to minimal levels of moisture content without
significant adverse effect on germination but are sensitive to low temperature storage
Seeds can withstand dehydration to a certain extent but have reduced longevity.
Recalcitrant: those seeds sensitive to both drying and low temperature. Seeds that
cannot withstand dehydration
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Selecting appropriate seeds

 General seed selection criteria from mother plants
 Fitting within the usual period of the raining season
 High and stable yield
 Resistance to insect pests and diseases
 Uniform heading and fruiting
 High oil, protein or starch content
 Moderate one thousand seed or grain weight
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Table: 1. Main crop on 1000 weight and grain number

Type of crop 1000 weight(g) Grain numbers per Kg
Wheat 17-25 50000-55000
Maize 350-550 2000-3000
Sorghum 22-220 8000-10000
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 Therefore, good seeds should have the following characteristics

 Pure (true to type)
 Must be viable :- good germination capacity
 Matured:- well developed, uniform size, shape, color , texture etc
 Health:- clean, and free from inert matter
 Free from other crop seeds
 Free from any pest and seeds borne diseases
 Should be whole, not broken, crushed, shriveled, rotten etc
 Should contain the required amount of moisture
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 Seed Quality

Factors affecting seed quality includes the following: maturity, wholesomeness,

diseases and pests and foreign matter.

A. Maturity

Immature seeds tend to store poorly, and in many instances may fail to germinate. Both
the stage of maturity when harvested and the conditions prevailing during maturity are
important factors in seed quality.

B. Wholesomeness

Injury, cracking or breakage of the seed would result in reduced germination.

C. Diseases and pest

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 Diseased seeds germinate poorly and pests such as cowpea weevil may damage the
seeds and also cause poor germination. Seeds that are to be stored are commonly
protected from diseases and pests by treating them with appropriate pesticides
procedure is referred to as seed dressing.

d. Foreign matter

Inert foreign matter such as stones and dried plant material are objectionable,
particularly in seeds destined for consumption.
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Seed quality Testing

Seed quality should be determined when buying seeds, selling seeds, giving or sharing seeds,
storing seeds, and sowing or planting seeds.

The quality of seed is governed by its purity, viability, germination capacity, seed health
(pathogens) test, genetic purity test etc.

If seed lacks in any of the characteristics it may becomes unfit for sowing. Each of such
characteristics is discussed below:-

A. Seed Vigor

 The strength or vigor of seeds, especially after exposing these to conditions of the
storage room and planting area, needs to be determined. Weak seeds planted in poor
field conditions will die, or the resulting plants will be susceptible to pests and diseases.
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 In addition, even if a number of seeds have germinated, their rate or timing of

germination and growth will be slow and not uniform.
 Determine seed vigor at the same time as measuring the percentage germination, in which
seed vigor is the speed and uniformity of germination of the seeds.
 Compare the number, speed and uniformity of germination of the seeds being tested
to those of good quality seeds. Seed vigor can also be determined by soaking the
seeds in water. Usually, the seeds which float are weak.
B. Seed Health test
 It evaluates the presence of insect on the seed like change in color, presence of
spots etc, and then placed under optimum germination condition for germination to
occur.
 Healthy seeds are free of pests and diseases which can kill or damage.
 If a microscope is not available, examine the seeds carefully. Look for blemishes or
stains in the seed-coat, molds, holes caused by insects or eggs of insects.
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These seeds might cause an epidemic or will introduce a new pest or disease and are,
therefore, unfit for planting. Clean the seeds and remove diseased or infected seeds.
Sometimes, a disease can be seen only after the seeds have been planted. Check if
germinating seeds have fungi or bacteria (symptoms of infection: seeds are watery,
shiny and have bad smell).
Many fungi and bacteria can be killed by soaking the seeds in hot water (50°C) for
30 minutes. However, some pests and diseases cannot be killed by this method.
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C. Seed purity test (Physical purity test)

Seed purity is the percentage of pure seed (only the seed of the desired kind without
contaminants) in the sample tested. The contaminants includes:-
• Seed of others: - like wheat seed may be found in barley seeds.
• Weed seed:- seeds of weeds that are found in a seeds.
• Inert materials: - includes materials (foreign matter) such as small stones, pieces of
wood, broken seed which are half/less than half of the original seed size and other
plant materials.
The contaminants lower seed quality. If possible clean the seeds before storing or
giving to others.
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 Causes of seed damages are:-

 Mechanical damage: - This happens during harvesting, threshing, drying and
storing.
 Occurrence of diseases: - The viability of seeds may be destroyed if fungi or
bacteria infest the seed during storage. These organisms take the stored food thus
leaving no food for emerging seedlings, which may result in death of seedlings.
Some seed borne organisms prevent seedling emergence.
 Damage by insects:- Seeds should be protected against damage by insects or
rodents.
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 The attributes of seed quality are;-

a) Genetic quality- the inherent genetic information contained in the seed which
provides the potential for higher yield, better grain quality, greater tolerance to
biotic or abiotic stress, and varietal identity.

b) Physiological quality- the viability and vigor of seed which determines the
germination and subsequent seedling emergence and crop establishment in the field
as well as the storage potential of the seed lot.

c) Physical purity- analytical purity, freedom from other crop/weed seed

contamination, seed size, seed weight, and seed lot uniformity.
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 As a measure of the cleanness of seed, pure seed is separated from impure seed, and
then separately weighed.
 Seed is considered pure if it appears normal in terms of size, shape, and general
outward appearance.
 Conversely, seed that is too small, has been partly eaten by insects, or exhibits
fungal stains is regarded as impure. A sample for a purity test may consist of 100 to
1,000 seeds.
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 A purity percentage is calculated as:

Purity (%)= weight of pure seed /weight of total sample x100%

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 Seed moisture content test

 The seed moisture content is generally calculated on a wet weight basis, according
to International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) practices.
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 % Moisture content = Fresh wt. of seed – Dry wt. of seed X 100

Fresh wt. of seed

 Whereas many biologists calculate seed moisture content on a dry weight basis:
 % Moisture content = Fresh wt. of seed – Dry wt. of seed X 100

Dry wt. of seed

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 Seed germination
 To the seed analyst, germination means the emergence and development from the
seed embryo of the essential structures that indicate the seed’s ability to produce the
normal plant under favorable conditions.
 For seeds to germinate, certain environmental conditions must be fulfilled.
 Water must be available.
 There should be an appropriate temperature.
 Oxygen should be present for aerobic respiration to occur so as to supply energy for
germination process.
 Light (optional).
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 Percentage of germination: number of germinated seed divided by total number of

seed tested times hundred.
 Germination % = No of normal germinated seedling X 100

Total No of seed tested

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 Seed treatment
 It is the process of applying physical, chemical or biological treatment to keep the
seed viability and healthy.
 Physical treatment includes subjecting seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in
conditioned water.
 Chemical treatment treating seeds with fungicides, insecticides, nematicides etc
 Biological treatments of seeds with microbial cultures such as Rhizobium.
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 Importance of seed treatment

 To prevent the infestation of insect pest
 To break dormancy of seed
 To induce high germination percentage
 To induce tolerances to adverse condition
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 Sowing Seeds

Sowing is the placement of a specific quantity of seed in the soil for germination and
growth, while planting is the placing of plant propagules (may be seedlings, cuttings,
rhizomes, clones, tubers etc.) in the soil to grow as plants.

Time of Sowing
 Time of sowing is a very 'important factor for proper establishment, growth and
yield of a crop.
 It is the non-monetary inputs which greatly influence the crop growth & yield.
 But it is difficult to recommend specific date of sowing in rain fed agriculture.
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Methods of Sowing

Seeds are sown directly in the field (seed-bed) or in the nursery.

Direct seeding

It may be done by broadcasting, drilling, and dibbling.

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1. Broadcasting
 Seeds are spread uniformly over well prepared land and covered by ploughing.
 There is no specific or definite inter or intra-row spacing between crops.
 Broadcasting may be done by hand, mechanical spreader or aeroplane.
 Broadcasting is suitable for close planted crops that do not require specific crop or
plant geometry.
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II. Drilling:- drilling is the practice of dropping the seeds in rows or lines.
 Advantages:
1) Seeds are placed at proper & uniform depths, resulting in uniform crop stand.

2) Along the rows, inter-cultivation can be easily done to control weeds

economically.

3) Uniform row to row spacing is maintained.

4) Seed requirement is less than ‘broad casting’

 Disadvantages:
1) Require implement for sowing,

2) Skilled person is required for sowing.

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III. Dibbling
 It consists of placing individual seed material in a hole or pre-determined
spacing and depth.
 Those crops are crops with bigger size seeds and those needing wider spacing.
 It is more laborious, time consuming and expensive compared with
broadcasting and drilling. But it requires less seed and gives rapid and uniform
germination with good seedling vigor.
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 Tillage and planting/sowing

Cleaning the land
 The first step in preparing a virgin land for crop production is clearing the land to
remove existing vegetation, either completely or partially. The amount of vegetation
removed during land clearing is depends on:-
• The production region:- grass land, shrubs or forest land
• Production system:- mechanized or non-mechanized
• Crops to be grown:- cereals, fruits, coffee, etc
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It involves operation of clearing;-

• Cutting down the vegetation
• Removal of dead plant materials (collecting and burning)
• Stumping:- removal of stumps. This used to facilitates cultivation of the land in
mechanized farm and the remaining stumps may be the source of diseases and
insect pests
Care to be taken during clearing the land
• Ecological factor
• Erosion problem (wind and water)
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 Tillage
 Tillage is the manipulation of soil with tools and implement for loosening the
surface crust and bringing about conditions favorable for the germination of seeds
and growth as well as development of crop plants.
 Tillage is a practice by which a good tilth can be maintained.
 Tillage is as old as agriculture.
 Primitive people used to disturb the soil for placing seeds.
 After harvest of crop, soil become hard and compact due to beating action of rain
drops, subsequent drying, movement of inter cultivation implements and labor cause
soil compaction.

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 Field contains weed and stubbles after the harvest of the crop.
 Seeds need loose and friable soil with sufficient moisture and air for good
germination.
 Tillage operation consists of breaking hard compact surface to a certain depth
and other operations which bringing the soil in a good physical condition for
plant growth.
 Therefore tillage is a practice by which a good tilth can be maintained.
 Tilth is a physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage.
 When the soil is brought to such condition ideal for crop growth it is called
seedbed and is said to be in good tilth.
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 Objectives of tillage practices are:

 to prepare a suitable seedbed for sowing seed and planting.

Tillage loosens the soil and results in a seed bed suitable for seed germination and
development of the young seedlings.

A good seed bed should be moist and should not contain large lumps of soil that may
prevent close contact between the seed and soil particle.
 To level the farm: obtain levelling of land for irrigation and other operations.
 To make the soil loose & porous: tillage often serves the purpose of breaking up the
surface layers of the soil so that water is able to infiltrate more rapidly into the soil.

It enables rain water or irrigation water to enter the soil easily i.e. infiltration.
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 To aerate the soil: Aeration enables the metabolic processes of the living plants
& microorganisms to continue properly.

Due to adequate moisture and air, the desirable chemical & biological activities
would go on at a greater speed & result in rapid decomposition of the organic
matter and consequently release of plants nutrients to be used by crops.
 to eliminate competition from weed growth, break disease and insect cycle.

It is the major function of tillage, which controls weeds by uprooting the weed
plant.
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 To destroy insect pests: Many of the insect-pests remain in dormant condition in the
form of pupae in the soil during off season & when the host crop is again planted,
they reappear on the crop. So pests can be destroyed by tillage through either
exposing insects to the sun or to birds that pick them up.
 To incorporate organic and other bulky manures: Organic manures should not only

be spread but properly incorporated into the soil.

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 Disadvantages of tillage
 Can bring buried weed seed into the surface some time.
 It increases evaporation of soil-water.
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 Types of Tillage
 Tillage operations are grouped into two types based on the time (with reference to
crop) at which they are carried out. They are:
 A. Preparatory tillage
 Tillage operations that are carried out from the time of harvest of a crop to the
sowing of the next crop are known as preparatory cultivation.

Operations carried out in any cultivable land to prepare seedbed for sowing of crops are
known as preparatory cultivation.
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It refers to tillage operations that are done to prepare the field for raising crops. It is
divided into three types: viz., (i) primary tillage, (ii) secondary tillage, and (iii) seed
bed preparation.

A. Primary tillage or Ploughing: is opening of the compacted soil with the help of
different ploughs. It is mainly done to open the hard soil. In addition, it should
ensure inversion (whenever necessary) of soil, uprooting of weeds and stubbles and
less cloddy soil surface.
 Depending on the purpose or necessity, different types of primary tillage are carried
out.
 They are deep ploughing, sub-soiling and year round tillage.
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 Deep tillage: Central Research Institute for Dry land Agriculture (CRIDA) in India
classified ploughing of 5-6 cm depth as shallow, 15-20 cm depth as medium and
20-30 cm depth as deep ploughing.
 Sub-soiling: is breaking the hard pan without inversion and with less disturbance of
topsoil.
 Year-round tillage: It is a tillage operation carried out throughout the year.

In dry farming regions, field operation is initiated with the help of showers. Repeated
tillage operations are carried out until sowing of the crop.

Even after harvest of the crop, the field is repeatedly ploughed or harrowed to avoid
weed growth.
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B. Secondary tillage
 Lighter or fine operations performed on the soil after primary tillage is known as
secondary tillage.
 After ploughing, the fields are left with large clods with some weeds & stubbles
partially uprooted
 Harrowing is done to a shallow depth to crush the clods & uprooting the remaining
weeds & stubbles.
 Sowing operations are also included in secondary tillage.
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C. Layout of seedbed and sowing

After the seedbed preparation, the field is laid out properly for irrigation & sowing or
planting seedlings.
 These operations are crop specific. For most of the crops like wheat, soybean, pear
millet, groundnut, castor etc. flat-leveled seedbed is prepared.
 That is, after secondary tillage, these crops are sown without any land treatments.
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 Modern Concept of Tillage

 In conventional tillage, the soil is opened (primary tillage), the soil mass is
broken into loose system of clods of mixed sizes, subsequently, a fine seedbed is
prepared by secondary tillage in which crushing of clods, repacking,
incorporation of plant residues, fertilizers, smoothing of soil surface etc. is done.

 In these processes, energy is often wasted and sometimes, soil structure

is destroyed.
 Recently, considerable change has taken place in tillage practices and several new
concepts have been introduced, namely, minimum tillage, zero tillage, stubble
mulch farming etc.
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Minimum tillage: This means that crop production could be carried out with as little
tillage or soil disturbance.
 Advantages:
 Improve soil condition due to decomposition of plant residues.
 Higher infiltration caused by decomposition of vegetation present on Soils.
 Improve root growth due to improved structure.
 Less soil compaction by reduced frequent movement in the farm.
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 reduce soil erosion.

 Disadvantages:
 Less seed germination
 More ‘N’ has to be added as rate of decomposition of organic matter is slow.
 Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary implements.
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 Zero tillage
 Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage
 It reduces time of tillage operation and energy requirement for tillage.
 Soils are homogenous in structure
 Disadvantages:
 Large population of perennial weeds appears
 Buildup of pests is more
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 Stubble mulch tillage

 The traditional methods of tillage developed in temperate moist climate to protect

the soil from wind and water erosion. It is mostly used in central United States.
 A new approach is developed for keeping soil protected at all times, whether by
growing a crop or crop residues left on the surface during fallow periods. It is
known as stubble –mulch tillage/ farming.
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 Fertilizer use and management in crops

 A fertilizer may be defined as any substance (chemical, organic ) that is added to the
soil supply elements required for the nutrition of plants.
 In specific sense, fertilizers are chemicals that occur naturally or are produced in the
factory and then added to the soil, supply nutrient elements required for better plant
growth.
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 Fertilizer Grade and ratio

 The fertilizer grade is the percentage composition, expressed in the order N-P 2O-

K2O. The grade, 27-3-9, contains 27 percentage nitrogen, phosphorus equivalent

to 3 percent p2o5 , and potassium equivalent to 9 percentage k 2o5

 Fertilizer ratio is the relative proportion of primary nutrients in a fertilizer grades

divides by the lowest number in the grade. A 27-3-9 fertilizer has a ratio of 9-1-3.
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 Classification of fertilizers
 Straight fertilizers :

The chemicals which supply only one primary plant nutrient, namely nitrogen or
phosphorus or potassium are known as straight fertilizers.

Urea (46% N), Ammonium Sulphate (20.5% N, 23.4 % S), Potassium Chloride (58-
60% K2O), Potassium Sulphate (48-50% K2O) and Single Super Phosphate (16-
22% P2O5) are the examples of straight fertilizers.
 Complex fertilizers

The chemicals which supply two or three primary plant nutrients of which two primary
nutrients are in chemical combination are known as complex fertilizers.
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Theses fertilizers are produced in granular form. Diammonium Phosphate (18% N,

46% P2O5), Nitro-phosphate Suphala (18:18:9; 20:20:2), Ammonium Phosphate
(20% P2O5, 20% N), Ammonium phosphate Sulphate (16% N, 20% P2O5) are
some of the examples of complex fertilizers.
 Mixed fertilizers

Physical mixture of straight fertilizers is known as mixed fertilizers. They contain 2 or

3 primary plant nutrients. These are made by thoroughly mixing the ingredients
either mechanically or manually. 12:32:16 and 15:15:15 are the examples of mixed
fertilizers.
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 Primary nutrients; - Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium

 Secondary nutrients; - Calcium, Magnesium and Sulfur
 Micronutrients; - Boron, Copper, Molybdenum, Chlorine, Cobalt, Sodium, Iron,
Manganese and Zinc
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 Crop protection
 Pest control
 In crop protection, pests can be defined as any form of pathogenic agent, which is
potentially injurious to crop or crop products."
 According to damages on crops, pests can be divided into two types.
 Economic pests mean pests cause a crop loss of about 5-10%, or even more in a
definite field.
 Non-economic pests mean pests cause a crop loss of less than 5% in a definite field.
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 Methods of pest control

1. Cultural methods of insect control

2. Chemical method of insect pest control

3. Biological method of pest control

4. Integrated pest management

5. Mechanical control

6. Regulatory control
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1. Cultural methods of insect control

 Hand picking
 Crop rotation
 Tillage practices
 Weed control
 Adjusting time of planting
 Resistant varieties
 Timely harvesting
 Trap cropping
 Optimum plant density
 Crop sanitation
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2. Chemical method of insect pest control

 The most effective method of controlling insect pest is by spraying or dusting crops
with insecticides.

3. Biological method of pest control

 Biological control refers to the use of living organisms for the control of pests; it
involves the use of predators, which feed on harmful insects and reduce their
numbers to a minimum.
 Broadly speaking, biological control also includes the use of pathogens (bacteria,
fungi, viruses, protozoan, and nematodes).
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 Types of biological control methods

 Conservation preserving and/or enhancing natural enemies that are already present
in the environment
 Introduction importing and releasing exotic (non-indigenous) natural enemies
against foreign and native pests.
 Augmentation mass-rearing natural enemies in the laboratory and releasing them
into the environment.
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4. Integrated pest management

 Integrated Pest Management (IPM) can be defined as the judicious selection and use
of compatible control options to keep pest population below damaging levels.
 IPM is based on knowledge of the ecology and population dynamics of the pest and
its natural enemies.
 The emphasis here is on controlling pests rather than attempting to eradicate them
altogether.
 IPM is a pest population management system that utilizes all suitable techniques
either to reduce pest populations and maintain them at levels below those causing
economic injury.
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5. Mechanical control

- Physically excluding pests from areas where they are not wanted. E.g. hand-pulling,
mowing, and burning weeds in fields or traps, screens, barriers, fences, nets, radiation,
and electricity, prevent the spread of pests into an area.

6. Regulatory control
 Regulatory control: Regulatory is the enactment of legislation to prevent or control
pests.
 Establishing quarantine stations at major ports of entry into an area.
 Setting up monitoring systems for pests in an given area.
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 Weed and weed management principles

 Weeds are often called as plants, which grow where they are not wanted/ required
 Weed interference with production
 Competing for water, nutrients, light, and space.
 Contaminating the product at harvest.
 Harboring pest insects, mites, vertebrates, or plant disease agents.
 Releasing toxic substances into the soil that inhibit growth of desirable plants.
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 Characteristics of weeds
 Weeds are persistent and resistant to control and eradication.
 Weeds possess an immense capacity to produce large number of seeds and their
growth is prolific.
 Weed seeds remain viable or dormant for long duration.
 Most of the weeds are hardy and able to withstand adverse soil, climate and disease
condition.
 Some weeds are similar to crop seeds in shape and size and their separation become
difficult.
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 Approaches to weed management

 Prevention
 Use of clean seeds.
 Keeping seed bed free from weeds.
 Keeping irrigation channels from weeds, for weeds’ seeds will get to the field by
irrigation.
 Keeping tools and machinery clean, hindering the spread of weeds’ seeds.
 Eradication:- New introduced weed with limited distribution.
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 diseases management principles

 In plants, disease can be defined as the malfunctioning of host cells and tissues that
result from their continuous irritation by a pathogenic agent or environmental factor
and leads to the development of symptoms.
 The factors caused plant diseases can be classified into the following categories
 Infectious, or biotic, plant diseases
 Noninfectious, or abiotic, diseases
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 Principles of plant disease control

 At present, plant disease control measures are mainly preventive.
 Once a plant or plant product is infected and symptoms appear, few control
methods -- including pesticides -- are effective.
 Cultural Control
 Crop rotation
 Planting time
 Mechanical Control
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 Soil heating
 Hot water treatments
 Controlling temperature and humidity
 Sanitation
 Pathogen-free seed stock
 Pathogen-free propagation materials
 Pathogen-free storage
 Chemical Control
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 Harvesting, threshing and storage

 Removal of entire plants or economical parts after maturity from the fields is said to
be harvesting.

a. Physiological maturity: It means when the translocation of photosynthates is stopped

to economic part. In other way, it refers to a developmental stage after which no further
increase in dry matter occurs in the economic part.

b. Harvest maturity: It generally occurs seven days after physiological maturity. The
important process during this period is stopped due to loss of moisture from the plants.
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 Method of harvesting

a. Manual harvesting: In manual harvesting, sickle is the most important tool. It has
to be sharp, curved and serrated for efficient harvesting. The other tools used for
harvesting is knife especially for harvesting of plants with woody stems.

b. Mechanical means/methods: Combine harvester or simply combines are used for

harvesting. Combines perform several operations: cut the crop, separates the grains
from straw, cleans it from chaff and transports grains to the storage tank.
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 The desirable properties of high-quality grains include

 low and uniform moisture content.
 minimal proportion of broken and damaged grains.
 low susceptibility to subsequent breakage
 high viability
 low mould counts
 high nutritive value
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 Factors affecting the storage

 Quality of the produce
 Temperature
 Light
 Relative humidity
Quiz test out of 10
1. Write desirable properties of high-quality grains include. At least four.
2. ----------- is the percentage composition, expressed in the order N-P2O-
K2O.
3. ------------- is the relative proportion of primary nutrients in a fertilizer
grades divides by the lowest number in the grade.
4. ----------- is a physical condition of the soil resulting from tillage.
5. Write three characteristics of weeds.
6. Write three types of biological control methods.
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Agronomy of major crops

A. Cereal crops
 Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor)

 Origin: - East central Africa, in or near Ethiopia or Sudan

 Area and distribution
 Sorghum is the 4th in its importance among the cereals being cultivated over an area
of about 51million hectare with a production of about 67.3 million tones.

 Sorghum producing counties are: USA, India, China, Nigeria, Sudan and Argentina.
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 Economic importance of sorghum

 Feed to cattle, poultry and swine
 It is staple food for drier parts of Africa, India and China
 Used in the form of porridge, Injera and bread

 Types of sorghum
 Common types of sorghum
 White seeded sorghum: highly affected by birds
 Dark brown sorghum: - have a bitter taste so that it is not palatable for
birds.
 Pop sorghum: is small seeded with hard endosperm
 Sorgo sorghum: is sugary and juicy (contain about 10% sucrose).
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 Botanical description
 Plant height: - 0.5 m to over 4m.
 Root system: - Most of the roots are confined to the upper 15cm of the soil layer and
reach to 1 - 2m deep.
 Stem: The numbers of nodes differs with the varieties.
 Leaves: - have 7-24 leaves according to varieties.
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 Nutritional value:- it contains 70% carbohydrate, 10-12% protein, 3% fat, 7.4-17%

leucine (essential amino acid).
 Ecological requirements
 It produces enough yield under harsh conditions

 It can grow in areas with high rainfall at altitude of 2400 m a.s.l.

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 Rain fall: An average annual RF of between 600-1000mm could help to

grow successfully.
 Temperature: optimum T for germination is about is 26-30 o C.
 Soil: Clay loam. Soil pH is about 6-8.5, tolerate salinity and alkalinity.
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 Varieties
Improved varieties had yielded about 80-100% more yield than local tall variety.
 Low land var.:- Melkamash, Gambela1107, 76-T-3323.

 High land var. :- Alemaya 70, ETS-2752

 Mid altitude var. :- IS-9302, IS-9323

 Production practices
 Purchase the seeds from reliable source /certified seeds/. If it is not treated,
treated the seeds with Thiram or Agrosan about 3gm per kg seeds.
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Seed rate: - 12-15kg/ha

Depth of sowing: - 3-4cm deep.
Sowing method; - Broadcasting or row planting

Time of sowing: - Under rain fed, onset of rain, delay the first rain may decrease
yield.
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Water management
• Usually sorghum is rain-fed crop, but at flowering and grain filling stages, it
requires more water.

Weeds and their control

• 15-40% loss of grain yield could occur due to weeds

• Both broadleaves and grass weeds affect sorghum plants.

• 15-45 days of crops grown is critical with regard to crop weed competition.
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• Biological control methods:-Some fungal pathogens like Fusarium nygamai and F.

semitectum are reduces germination and/or kill S. hermonthica.
• Integrated control of Striga

Insect pest and their control

• Sorghum shoot fly (Atherigona soccata)

• Causes damage after 1-4 weeks of emergence

• Maggot feeds tops resulting in the wilting of the central leaf

• Cause dead heart and later produce seed tillers.

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B. Maize (Zea mays L.)

Origin: -Maize originated in Central America

Area and distribution
• Today, maize is one of the most important food crops world-wide. It is
third after wheat and rice in area and total production in the world.
• In our country maize is among the cereals being cultivated over an area
of about 2 million hectare with a production of about 61.6 million
tones.
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Uses of maize
• Food (mainly in developing countries)
• Used in the form of porridge, Injera and bread
• Used for production of adhesives, clothing, and pharmaceutical
tablets, paper and ethanol
• The starch can be converted into sweeteners and used in products such
as soft drinks, sweets, bakery products and jams
• The protein, hulls and soluble part of the maize kernel are used in
animal and poultry feed.
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Climatic requirement
Temperature:- Maize is a warm weather crop and is not grown in areas where the
mean daily temperature is less than 19 ºC or where the mean of the summer months is
less than 23 ºC. Optimum T for germination is about 16 to 18 ºC. At 20 ºC, maize
should emerge within five to six days.
Soil:- Maize plant is sensitive to water logging. Water logging more than 24 hours at
early stage can kill the crop. Maize grows best in deep and loamy soils with a pH range
of 5.5 – 7.8.
Rain fall:- An average annual RF of between 600-1500mm could help to grow
successfully.
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Seed and seed sowing

Spacing:- Row planting is recommended for maize production. The optimum plant
density differs for different varieties depending on plant height, and maturity. For
late/medium maturing varieties of mid-altitude sub-humid agro ecology, the spacing
should be 70-75 cm x 25-30 cm.
Seed rate: - seed rate of 25 kg/ha is recommended
Depth of sowing: - 5-7cm deep.
Sowing method; - row planting

Time of sowing: - Under rain fed, at the beginning of rainfall through considering its

maturity time.
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Water management
Maize is more sensitive of both excess water and drought conditions than is sorghum.
Irrigations should be scheduled to ensure adequate moisture in the soil. Drainage of
the maize field is as important as irrigation.

Rotation and mixed cropping

Monoculture is not recommended for maize production. Increase in incidence of
diseases, insect pests and weeds, deterioration in soil structure, loss of topsoil by
erosion and depletion of soil fertility are the major problems associated with mono
cropping.
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Crop rotation: Maize crop benefits when rotated with legumes as legumes can fix
nitrogen.
Soybean, haricot bean and other pulse crops are recommended for rotation with
maize.
 In addition, niger seed followed by haricot bean as precursor crop for maize is
recommended around Bako and similar areas.
Intercropping: Intercropping 75% plant density of haricot bean with 100% plant
density of maize during oxen-cultivation (Shilshalo) at about 35 days after planting is
recommended around Bako.
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Intercropping one seed/hill of haricot bean within the same row of maize (80 cm x 50
cm, two seeds/hill) is also recommended around Jimma and similar areas.
 In addition intercropping of two rows of maize and one row of faba bean/
gomenzer /potato is recommended in the highland areas.
Relay cropping: Relay planting of sweet potato at 50% flowering of maize is
recommended.
 In addition, relay planting of haricot bean starting from 50% flowering to 15 days
after flowering of maize is also recommended.
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C. Wheat ( Triticum spp)

Origin: originated in the valley of Euphrates and Tigris ( covering southern Turkey,
North Iraq and near Iran and Syria) Muslim world. Duram wheat is probably originated
from Ethiopia and spread to northern Asia, Europe etc.
Importance of wheat
• Used for human consumptions bread, cakes, macaroni, spaghetti and breakfast
food.

• The flour of wheat forms dough when mixed with water which up on leaving and
baking produces porous bread due to glutein which holds the carbondioxide
produced during fermentation.
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Area and distribution

• Is most widely cultivated of all cereals, world’s leading of cereal crops, more than
239 million ha and 425.5 million tons of grain followed by rice and maize.

• Production ranks: - Russia, USA, Switzerland, France, Germany etc.

Types of wheat
Under grass family it belongs to genus Triticum. Although as many as 18 spp. of
wheat have been described, only a few are agriculturally important.
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Environmental Requirement
Wheat is high land crop, but also cultivated in low lands (tropical and subtropical
regions of the world).
Altitude: - 1800-300m a.s.l.
Rainfall: - 250-750mm of annual precipitation.
Temperature: - For germination. 20-25 Co
• For tillering, 16-20 Co
• For development, 20-23 Co

Soil: fertile, well drained, silt and clay loam soils and it is good water holding
capacity.
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Variety

Bread wheat Macaroni wheat

Shina Dashen Roba
Katar E-T-13 Boohi
Deselegn Wabe Foka
Kubsa Holeta Asasa
 Rotation:- Wheat can be grown in the rotation, with two crops per year. It is mainly
rotated with highland pulses, teff (brown).
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Land preparation
• Land should be cultivated 3 times (Plowing and Harrowing)
Sowing methods
• Broadcasting and drilling in the rows
• Depth of sowing 2.5-5cm whereas seed rate is 123-150kg/ha
Time of sowing
It is influenced by the onset of rainy season & soil temperature as well as altitude of the
area.
• 2450-2700 m a.s.l: late may to early June
• 2150-2450 m a.s.l: in the first half June
• 1850-2150 m a.s.l: late June to early July.
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D. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

Origin: - cultivated barley is evolved from wild ancestor in the near east. This wild
spp is naturally distributed around Syrians plain and Euphrates river basin as a weed
around 800BC.
It occupies about 9.4 of the total cereals areas of production and about 7.8% of the
total cereals production. It distributed from plateaus of Tibet to Ethiopia, and oasis of
Sahara.
Uses of barely
• Used for human consumption in the form of syrup, porridge, injera, kolo etc

• It is palatable and nutritious for animals 2 nd in the world next to maize.

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Climatic requirement and soil

Barley is hardy crop that mean can be grown in diverse agro-climatic condition
(drought, salinity, alkalinity, rained or irrigated conditions). It requires cool
weather during early growth and warm and dry weather at maturity. It also tolerate
hot as well as cold compared to wheat.
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Altitude:- 2200-3000 m a.s.l.

Rainfall;- barley can grow even in a regions of minimum rainfall (200-250mm).
Temperature:- optimum temperature for germination and emergence is 15-20 C o.
Temperature for vegetative growth is 16-17 C o.
Soil: barley thrives best on well drained, fertile deep , loam soil or clay loam soils. Up
to 7-8 soil pH; it gives higher yield than wheat and other cereals crops on moderately
saline and alkaline soils.
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Varieties

Various improved varieties of barley for rained, irrigated, late sown and moderately
saline condition have been released which are capable of giving 15-25 % more yields.
• Food barely:- IARH 485, HAOR, HB42, ARDU,1260B.

• Melt barley:- Baca, Holker, proctor

Rotation and mixing cropping
• Barley is rotated with high land pulses, potato, red tef, high land maize, paddy rice.

• Mostly mixed intercropping is done with barley plus pea, barley plus wheat, barley
plus linseed etc.
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Field preparation
• One cross cultivation with soil turning plow, followed by planting is enough to get good seed
bed for sowing.
Seed sowing and time of sowing
Seed rate;- 100kg/ha for broadcasting and 75-85kg/ha for row planting.
Spacing:- 22.5-25cm by drilling.
Depth of sowing:- 4-8 cm deep.
Growth stages of barley plant
Barley has well defined stages of growth and development similar to wheat. A few growth stages
of agronomic importance are:-
• Germination stage and initial seedling establishment:- it is after germination below soil surface
up to the coleoptiles emerges to the soil surface. This stage lasts up to 20-25 days from sowing.
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Fertilizer application
• For food barley:- 60kg/ha N and 60 kg/ha P 2O5

• For malt barley:- 41 kg/ha N and 46kg/ha P 2O5

Irrigation

• 50% soil moisture gives satisfactory germination of the seed.

• Irrigation at 25% moisture in 15-30cm layer result in higher yields.

• Critical time of irrigation is at tilliering, at flag leaf stage and at grain

filling.
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Environmental requirements
Broad beans/faba beans are widely grown in temperate and subtropical countries with
good rainfall. During cool seasons, they are also cultivated at higher attitudes in the
tropics. The crop is highly susceptible to drought and high temperatures.
A field having good drainage-neutral soil on which the same crop was not grown in
the previous year (unless the variety of the crop was the same and cerrified) should be
selected as a seed plot.
Cultural practices
Time of planting:- Faba beans may be sown from mid-June to early July.
Spacing:- Kelly recommended 60 x 12 cm spacing for better results. Wider spacing
may also be advantageous in drier areas, and where inter-row cropping is practiced.
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Seed rate:- Seed rates of Faba bean vary considerably from 175 to 200 kg/ha for the
small-seed cultivars to as high as 250 kg/ha for larger seeded varieties.
Lower rates are generally used for free-tillering autumn-sown cultivars than for those
sown in spring, which tiller less.
Faba beans should be sown deeper than most crops (8 cm deep). Broadcasting the
seeds followed by plowing to put the seed deep in soil or putting the seed box on the
plow are more satisfactory methods than sowing the seed with drillers.
Deep sowing prevents bird damage.
Pests and their controls
The plants affected by disease like bacterial blight, anthracnose, ascochyta blight, and
bean mosaic should also invariably be recovered from time to time as required.
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Harvesting and threshing;-

Faba beans should be harvested when a large percentage of pods are fully ripe and most of the remaining
pods have turned yellow.
Harvesting should be in before the lower pods become dry enough to shatter. As with peas, small areas are
harvested by hand.
The longer bean stalks can be bound into sheaves and stacked in the filed to dry to allow the seeds to
mature further. Larger areas are usually combined.
Windrowing is possible provided wet weather conditions are not prevailing well synchronized, the plants
being indeterminate.
Therefore, the appropriate time of harvest is difficult to judge. The maturing plant loses its leaves, after
which the stem and pods begin to turn black.
 For windrowing, at least 25% of the pods should have changed color, and for direct combining, it is
advisable to wait until up to 90% have changed. The seed moisture content at this stage will be around 30%
or less; for direct combining, it should fall below 20%.
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Control of Pests and Diseases.

Pea seed crops should be sprayed with 0.25-0.5% DDT emulsion to control
aphids, jassids, and pod borers at the beginning of flowering.
Mildew may be prevented by dusting the top with fine sulfur once or twice in its
later stages of growth.

Control: The off-types and the diseases plants affected by pea mosaic, root rot,
and blight should be rogued out from the field from time to time.

Harvesting: The harvesting of pea seed crops may begin when 90% of the pods
turn brown. The plants are uprooted and stacked in small heaps and allowed to dry
in the field for about a week.
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E. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum)

Origin:-

Area and description:- Chickpea (Cicer arietinum), which takes the 2nd share of the area and the
production of pulses next to faba bean (vicia faba L.), is among the most important cool season food
legumes in Ethiopia.
The crop grows in several regions of the country mainly in Shoa, Gojam, Tigray, West Wollo,
Gonder, East Bale and West Hararge.
Uses:- Chickpea is a good source of dietary protein, fertility restorer through symbiotic nitrogen
fixation, drought tolerant and break crop.
It can be processed and used in form of dehulled (split seed or kik), and soaked and roasted (kolo or
snacks).
It is used in mixture with cereals and root crops in the preparation of childhood food such as faffa, of
which 10% is chickpea, as a protein supplements.
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Types of chickpea
There are two types of chickpea in the world: the Desi type, with small angular brownish
colored seeds, widely cultivated in Ethiopia; and the Kabuli type, with large, ram-shaped,
white or pale cream or yellow colored seeds. They have also differences in yield and market
preferences.
Botanical description
Environmental requirements
It grows in well within altitude range of 1400-2300 m.a.s.l. and annual rain fall of 700-
2000mm.
It grows on stored soil moisture after the end of rainy season on clay soil.
The major cereal crops such as tef, Barley and wheat are commonly rotated with chickpea in
Northern and Central Highland of the country where it grows as a sole crop.
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Cultural practices
Seedbed preparation;- To keep the soil friable and weed free, it is advisable to plough
deep once from March to May in dry season and disking twice from Mid June to early
August.
Where chickpea is grown on flat heavy clay soils, it is advisable to use ridge and furrow
(RF) plots as it facilitate the removal of excess water from the field.
 Broad bed and furrow (BBF) can also be used on gentle slopes of 0-0.8%.
Sowing time and methods:- Planting time is an important factor in increasing chickpea
yield.
The recommended sowing times for chickpea vary with altitudes, locations, and
depends upon site specific seasonal rain fall, soil types and maturity period of specific
chickpea variety.
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The recommended sowing date for Vertisols of medium and high altitude areas is
from mid August to early September depending up on the intensity of rain fall.
 Advancing planting time to early September increase about 50% yield in chickpea
since planting during this rainy season allows the crop to grow vigorously and enable
it to make efficient use of conserved moisture during germination, establishment and
seed filling stage.
 In low moisture stressed environments such as low lands or sandy soils, early
planting in July is advantageous.
Chickpea can be sown in rows or broadcasted.
Planting in row gave higher yields as compared with broadcast method as the former
facilitates inter-row cultivation and hand-weeding.
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 Seed rate and spacing:- The optimum planting density for chickpea varies from
location to location depending up on the growing environments and growth habit of
the crop.
 It was known that seeding rate has no significant effects on seed yield due to the
capacity of the crop to produce large number of branches to compensate for low
plant population.
 However, it is essential to use high seed rate in ensuring good plant stand under
adverse environmental conditions. For row planting, a spacing of 30cm between
rows and 10cm between plants is recommended.
 A reduced spacing between plants can be used for varieties with erect and hence
plant density can be increased.
 However, seed rate for broadcast method appears to vary depending up on the seed
size of the cultivars and growth habit.
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So, high seed rates for large seeded and erect cultivars and low seed rates for
varieties with small seed size and prostrate growth habit can be used.

For instance , the seeding rates for small seeded cultivars such as DZ-10-4 and
DZ-10-11 varies is 90-100 kg/ha where as that of large seeded cultivars like
Shasho, Arerti and Mariye vary up to 140-160 kg/ha.
Fertilization:- From different fertilizer trails, it is confirmed that neither fertilizer
rates nor sources have a marked effect on yield of chickpea on Vertisols.
However, the uses of 100kg DAP/ha have been noticed to supplement nitrogen
and phosphorus requirements at early growth stage of the crop.
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Diseases and their control

• Root diseases of chickpea
• Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. ciceri)
Fusarium wilt is the most important disease-affecting yield in Ethiopia. Wilt occurs during
seedling and adult plant stages.
At seedling stage, the disease can occur 25 days after sowing on susceptible cultivar
depending on the environmental conditions for wilt development.
 During the adult plant stage of the crop, the infected plants show typical wilting (drooping
of the petioles along with the leaflets).
When the stem of the infected plant split, black discoloration of the xylem is evident. Early
wilting causes more losses than late wilting but seeds from the later are lighter, rougher and
dull.
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Control measures: The best method of wilt control is use of resistant cultivars.
• Fusarium root rot (Fusarium solani)
The disease is favored by a temperature of 22-28OC and high soil moisture. The disease can
appear at any growth stage of the crop. It causes yellowing of the basal foliage, stunted
growth and reddening of the vascular tissue below the soil line.
Control Measures: use of resistance varieties, an integrated approach that includes cultural
practices (drainage), maintenance of good seed vigor and genetic resistance is required.
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 Collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii)

The disease is usually observed under wet warm conditions. The first visible
symptoms appear as yellowing or wilting of the lower leaves which progresses to
the upper ones.
On all infected tissues, the fungus produces numerous small round-shaped
sclerotia, which are brown in color.
The only economic control consists of long term rotations with non-susceptible
host and deep plowing.
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 Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta rabiei)

Ascochyta blight is a devastating disease when weather condition (cool and wet
weather) prevails.
The pathogen is seed and stubble born. In Ethiopia it is an important disease in
early-planted chickpeas in the low lands and when rainfall is extended beyond
September.
Symptoms: Above ground plant parts are affected during all crop stages. Seeds
from infected pods can show discoloration.
Control measures: use of resistant cultivars, such as Arerti, use of pathogen free
seeds, seed treatment with fungicides foliar fungicide spray, stubble management
and crop rotations.
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 Stunt
An important group of viruses affecting cool-season food legumes are those causing
yellowing, chlorosis, reddening and stunting.
Control measures: Cultural practices such as varying sowing dates, plant density and
using borders of plants which are not hosts to the virus are effective in reducing yield losses.

Insect pests and their control

Chickpea is an important crop grown in different parts of the country. Despite its wide
cultivation it is attacked only by few insect pests.
• African Bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera):
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 Control measures
• Chemical control: application of Cypermethrin (45g ai/ha) and Endosulfan
(472 g ai/ha) at peak flowering stage. It should be noted that insecticides for
the control of ABW must be applied when the larvae are at early stage.
• Cultural control: An increase in plant density and early planting favored the
incidence of the pest.
• Use of resistance varieties:

 Adzuki Bean Beetle

A loss assessment study using improved variety revealed a mean weight loss of
52% within eight months of storage period.
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Control measures
Chemical: use of Actellic 2% dust at the rate of 50g/ 100kg.
Botanicals: Birbira Melletia ferufinea at 5% W/W gave complete protection of
chickpea for long period. Nonetheless, the toxicity of this species to human beings
has not yet been investigated.
Harvesting and Postharvest handling
Chickpea maturity, usually 4-5 months after emergence, has been manifested by
light green coloration of pods. It is advisable to harvest when about 90-95% of the
crop matures.
Threshing: it can be done by driving animals on the crop on well-prepared ground
threshing or by threshers.
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Storage: Chickpea is attacked by storage pests like weevils, rodents etc.

Hence, storage bins should be placed in cool place, thoroughly cleaned, made free of
overwintered pests, fumigate before putting seeds and provide with proper air
circulation.
The storage bins should be building 50 cm above the ground to protect rodents.
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F. Lentil (Lens culnaris M.)

Origin:-

Area and distribution:-

Uses of lentil:-
• Lentil is an invaluable source of protein (23-24%) for the vast majority of Ethiopian masses
• It is consumed in different preparations a split or whole grain stew with "Injera " or bread
staple

• Sometimes as roasted or boiled whole grain snack alone or often mixed with cereals or
other pulses.

• Relatively high level of lysine in lentil compensates for low concentration in cereal grains
hence when consumed in combination gives nutritionally well balanced diet.
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• The straw/haul is an important source of feed for animals fattening.

• Besides, lentil is leading in fetching the local market price and comparably has
significant export market option in field crops.

• Maintaining soil fertility through symbiotic biological nitrogen fixation. Lentil can fix
up to 107 kg N/ha (Saxena, 1980).

• For breakage of the life cycle of important diseases and insect pests in crop rotation.
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Botanical description:-
 Lentil plants are typically short compared to cereal crops, ranging from 20 to 75 cm
in height.
 The first two nodes on the stem develop below or at the soil surface and are known
as scale nodes.
 The third node on the stem is the usual site of the first leaf development. Lentil
seedlings can produce a new node every four to five days under good growing
conditions.
 Just prior to flowering, new leaves will develop a short tendril at the leaf tip. Leaves
are about five cm long with 9 to 15 leaflets.
 Lentil plants have an indeterminate growth habit, so they will continue to flower
until there is some form of stress such as moisture, nutrient deficiency, or high
temperature.
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Flowering proceeds acropetally and self-pollinated.

 Flower stalks produce one to three flowers, which develop pods. Pods are less than
2.5 cm in length and contain one or two seeds.
Most of the seed is produced by the aerial branches, which form from the uppermost
nodes on the main stem just below the first flowering node.
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Environmental requirements:-
Lentil (Lens culnaris) in Ethiopia is amongst the principal cool season food legumes.
It is very sensitive to environmental stresses such as drought, water logging and frosts.
In Ethiopia, lentil grows between 1700-2400 m.a.s.l with annual rainfall ranging from 700-
2000 mm. in the world; however, it is cultivated between sea level and 3000 m.a.s.l.
Cultural practices
Land preparation
 Lentil is mainly grown in the highlands of Ethiopia where rainfall is usually high.
 Generally, lentil is highly susceptible to excessive moisture stress and farmers plant lentil
on sloppy fields or otherwise use ridge and furrow system to drain excess water from
lentil field to avoid water logging problem specifically on black soils (Vertisols).
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The soil should be friable and free of weeds at planting. One deep dry plough
(March early June) and twice disking from mid June to early July depending on the
environment are recommended.
 Double yield advantage of lentil can be obtained when two to three times oxen
ploughed accompanied by twice hand weeding.

Planting Time
Luxurious growth followed by severs lodging due to early planting and terminal
drought stress due to late planting should be avoided to get maximum yield.
 Late June to mid July planting is recommended in both mid to high altitude areas.
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Seed rate
Response to planting densities varies among lentil genotypes/varieties depending on seed size and
growth habit of the specific cultivars.
 Erect growth and large seeded genotypes need higher seed rate where as prostrate and small seeded
ones needs relatively lower seed rate.
Lentil can be planted either by broadcasting or in rows however, broadcasting is quite common.
For row planting, 20cm row-spacing and 5cm between plants spacing is recommended. Seed rate of
65, 80 and 100 kg/ha seeding rate for small, medium and large-seeded lentil varieties, respectively is
optimum.
Fertilization

Lentil is found non-responsive to N and P fertilizers on Vertisols.

However, 100kg DAP/ha is generally recommended for most legumes as a starter until the plant
becomes self sufficient in N fixation and also to furnish phosphorus need.
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Insect pests and their control

Six insect species were identified as important insect pest in different lentil growing regions of the
country.
These are: Pea aphid, Adzuki bean beetle, Black bean aphid, Bean flower thrips and African
bollworm. Of which, Pea aphid and African bollworm are important insect pests.
Control measure of Pea aphid
Insecticide screening: Several insecticides were evaluated and Primicarb (Primor) 50% WP,
Primiphos-Methyl (Actellic) 50% EC, Ofunack 40% EC and Dimethoate (Roger) 40 EC were
effective in reducing the population of this pest.
Spraying of insecticides at a density of 25-50 pea aphids per 10cm X 13cm white board is
economical.
However, since aphids have high reproduction rate frequent inspection of the field is required.
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Cultural control: Plant density has no effect on the incidence of pea aphid on lentil and early
planting expose the crop to more aphid attack.
However, planting large area early in the season leads to pest dilution and thus, it might not result in
high incidence of pea aphid in lentil.

Diseases and their control

Lentil production is affected by wilts, foliar diseases and root rot pathogens.
a. Wet root rot (Rhizoctonia solani): The disease affects seedlings when warm, moist conditions are
prevalent.
Seedlings become less susceptible with maturity. Seedling damping-off can be severe when soil
moisture and soil surface organic matters are high.
Symptoms: Seedling symptoms appear as water-soaked lesions turning reddish-brown to brown. On
older plants, reddish brown, sunken lesions may occur on the hypocotyle sometimes girdling the entire
plant, resulting in severe plant stunting or death.
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Control measures: Rotation with cereals, clean tillage of field prior to sowing

b. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lentis): Fusarium wilt is severe
on lentil mainly grown on residual moisture in the highlands dominated with
vertisols. Wilt is severe during warm weather.
Symptoms: Symptoms appear at seedling and adult plant stages. Wilt in adult
plants can appear from the flowering to late pod filling stages.
 Seedling wilt is characterized by sudden drooping followed by drying of leaves
and deaths of seedlings.
The infected roots when split show very little vascular discoloration.
 Control measures: Adjusting sowing dates and use of resistant cultivars.
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c. Collar rot (Sclerotium rolfsii): The disease is prevalent in areas with high soil
moisture in the seedling stage of the crop.
Symptoms: The affected seedlings lie flat on the ground. The typical symptoms are
seen near the collar region, which is rotted and discolored. On the affected collar region,
white strands of the pathogen are characteristic rapeseed like brown sclerotia are seen
on the affected collar region.
Control measure: Adjusting sowing dates to avoid high soil moisture and temperature.
Residue management (straw should be well decomposed before planting lentil).

d. Rust (Uromyces fabae): Early infection in the crop growth stage and environmental
conditions (temperature ranging from 20-22 OC and wet weather) can result in complete
crop failure.
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Symptoms: Rust pathogen infects all aerial plant parts. Brown uredia are formed on
both sides of leaves and other plant parts.
At maturity dark-brown telia develop on infected plant parts.
 The pathogen completes its life cycle on lentil. The pathogen also affects faba bean,
chickpea and grass pea.
Control measures: The most effective means of combating rust is use of resistant
cultivars, adjusting sowing date, crop rotation, fungicide spraying (Dithane M-45 at the
rate of 1 l/ha) and field sanitation can be practiced to mitigate the effect of rust on lentil
yield and quality.

e. Ascochyta blight (Ascochyta lentis): it affects both quality and quantity if lentil is
introduced in low lands.
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Symptoms: Above ground plant parts are affected during all crop stages if
environmental conditions (cool and wet weather) prevail. Tan spots are seen on
leaflets, pods and stems speckled with black fruiting bodies called pycnidia. Seeds
from infected pods can show symptoms.
Control measures: use of pathogen free seeds; seed treat with fungicides
(thiabendazole and benlate); foliar fungicide spray (Chlorothalonil at 2-3 l/ha) as
single application at flowering to early pod stages; 2-3 years crop rotation and use of
resistant varieties.
Weeds of Lentil
The commonest and important weed species identified in lentil were; Phalaris
paradoxa, Argemone mexicana , Bromus pectinatus, and Cyperus rotundus.
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Harvesting and threshing

G. Haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Origin: originated from highlands of Central America
Area and distribution
• In our country soybean is among the pulse crops being cultivated on an area of about
366,876.94 hectare with a production of about 4,630,084.90 quintals (CSA, 2013)
Uses of haricot bean
• In traditional dishes, wat (local sauce) and with kocho

• Fresh beans (mature and green pods) as vegetable for local consumption and export.

• An important source of protein (22%), vitamins, and minerals such as Ca, Cu, Fe,
Mg, Mn, and Zn for human diets, especially in developing countries.
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• In the first world countries the nutritional benefits and contribution of beans to
healthy human diets is recognized by nonprofit organizations targeting human
aliments like cancer, diabetes, and heart disease

 Types of crops
• Prostrate bush type:- it is a bushy types of haricot bean and in the central
zone achieve rapid ground cover and compete well with weeds.

• Climbers:- are widely grown on homestead fences in the western region,

where they can make full use of the longer growing season. Some of them can
also be fit for inter-cropping with long cereal crops like maize, sorghum, etc.
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Botanical description
Morphologically it is classified as determinate or indeterminate based on whether a
terminal reproductive or vegetative stem is formed though growth habit.
 It is a highly polymorphic species showing considerable variation in growth habit,
vegetative characters, color of flowers and seeds, size and shape of seeds and pods
Environment requirement
The wide range of growth habits among bean varieties has enabled the crop to be
cultivated well under different agro-ecological conditions.
Early maturity and a moderate degree of drought tolerance have led to the crop’s
vital role in farmer’s strategies for risk aversion in drought prone lowland areas of
central, eastern, and southern Ethiopia
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Altitude:- Common bean has a wide range of adaptation. In Ethiopia, common bean grows
well between 1400 and 2200m above sea level
Temperature:- The minimum and maximum mean temperature requirements are 10 and
320C, respectively.
Beans do not grow well at low altitudes as high temperatures cause poor seed set. At high
altitudes, the growth is slow and beans are sensitive to frost
Rainfall

Areas with medium rainfall ranging from 350mm to 700mm (70 to 100 days) are good with
a well-defined rainy season so that harvesting is done in dry weather. Some rain is required
for the critical flowering period.
Very high rainfall causes flower drop and increase the incidence of diseases. The relative
humidity should not exceed 75%.
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 Soils
Beans can be grown on a variety of soils. I can be grown on light sandy soils to heavy clay
soils if they are well drained as beans are sensitive to water logging.
pH should be above 5.0. As beans have relatively bigger seeds, they do not need a fine
seedbed. The land should be ploughed properly and should be free of weeds, soil clods and
other undesirable materials.
Plowing should be done just after harvesting the previous crop and before the soil is too
hard to till.
This operation will help to turn down the vegetation and the remains of the previous crop.
A second plowing can be made one month later. A third plowing can follow just before
sowing. Pulverizing all soil clods with a hoe is also important.
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 Seed sowing
Time of sowing;- Delays in sowing reduce potential yield considerably.
For any growing areas, the proper sowing time is when conditions are ideal for
germination, emergence, establishment, and growth of bean.
As they take 75-95 days to maturity at medium altitudes (1000-1700m) and about 110
days at high altitudes (1800-2200m), the sowing should be done about 70 days before
the end of the rains at medium altitudes and about 100 days before the end of the rains
at high altitudes.
Too late sowing will lower the yield.
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Depth of sowing:- 4-8cm is the proper range to use depending on seed size, soil
type, and climate.
Spacing:- The seed can be row planted or broadcasted followed by subsequent
plowing to cover the seeds.
Spacing depends on the size of mature plant; both above ground and below ground,
and how the land is used efficiently.
For the Central Rift Valley, the spacing between rows should be 40cm, and seeds in
the row 10cm apart.
Seed rates:- Seed rate should be chosen to give about 300 to 500 thousand plants per
hectare. To achieve this plant population a seed rate of 70 to 100 kg/ha is required for
row planting and 110 to 120 kg/ha for broadcasting based on seed size and quality.
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Fertilizer requirement
Bean is responsive to N, P and K fertilizer when soil levels are inadequate to support
yield levels possible with existing soil moisture and growing season climatic conditions.
Crop response to a nutrient is affected by soil moisture, temperature, placement, tillage,
and crop. Thus, agronomists should know and give due emphasis to soil types, climate,
and the bean plant itself.
If other crops respond to phosphorus in the area apply around 50-100kg DAP/ha during
planting.
The small amount of nitrogen will help the plants to get a good start. When the plants
are deficient in nitrogen they show leaf yellowing, at this moment, 50-100 kg urea could
be applied as top dressing before flowering.
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Crop rotation:- In Ethiopia, beans are grown in rotation with cereals. Growing of
beans year after year on the same land will result in build-up of pests and diseases.
Beans should preferably be not grown more often than every 3 rd to 4th year on the
same land.
 Intercropping:- Shade tolerance and early maturity contribute to the predominant
position of beans as an under storey intercrop for sorghum, maize, coffee and enset
in southern and eastern zones (85% of all sorghum in the eastern highlands is
intercropped with beans).
 Beans can be inter-planted with maize or sorghum in the same field either by
broadcast planting the two crops together or by planting in different rows or by
planting cereals in rows and broadcasting beans in between.
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The intercropping system not only improves the total productivity by 20% but can
also reduce weed incidence and improve soil fertility.
Early maturing bean varieties planted simultaneously with maize in two maize/1
bean intercrop pattern can give sustainable yield and income advantage in the rift
valley.
Alley cropping:- alley cropping of beans with perennial leguminous shrubs such as
Sesbania sesban or Cajanus cajan (with 4 to 6m between perennial hedge rows) can
reduce soil erosion and also improve soil fertility.
 The system can produce an additional biomass of 2 to 3 t/ha, which can be used for
fodder or for mulching or for green manure application without any significant grain
yield reduction of beans.
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Diseases and their controls:- Common beans suffer from a wide range of leaf, stem
and root diseases including common bean bacteria (CBB), rust, anthracnose, angular
leaf spot, floury leaf spot, web blight, halo blight, aschochyta (Phoma) blight and bean
common mosaic virus (BCMV).
In Ethiopia CBB, rust and anthracnose are the most important and are widely
distributed, while the others, though important, are much more restricted in their
distribution
Control:- Various methods are used to control haricot bean diseases’.
• Seed treatment with copper fungicides

• Use of resistance varieties like Awash-1, Roba-1, Nasser, and Awash Melka

• Sanitation
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• The use of clean seed, burial of infected debris, and rotation or inter cropping with cereals.
Insect pests and their control:- Common insect pests are bean stem maggots (BSM)-commonly
known as bean fly, bean bruchids and African ball worm (ABW).
Control for BSM
• Bean fly numbers were lower and crop yields higher in early sown beans in the drier areas of
Mekelle, Kobo and Melkassa where as at Hawassa, which has higher rain fall, bean fly
numbers declined with late seeding.
• On the other hand lower bean fly numbers and higher yields were with higher plant densities of
300,000-500,000 seeds/ha at all locations.
• Growing resistant varieties to BSM (e.g. Beshbesh and Melke)
• Seed dressing with endosulfan at the rate of 5g a.i/kg of seed gives adequate control of BSM.
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Control for bean bruchids

• Keep storage structures clean and field Hygiene

• Mix with botanicals like Neem seed powder at rate of 10% by volume.

• Use of resistant varieties

• Insecticidal control- mix bean seeds with primiphos-methyl (Actellic) 2% dust

at a rate of 2.5 g/10 kg of seed.

Control for ABW:

• Strip cropping of 10-15 rows of haricot bean with 2 rows of maize

• Spray cypermethrin at 150 g a.i./ha

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Weeds and their control

Beans do not compete well with weeds, particularly at early stage. Also weeding bean late in the season
critically affects bean yields due to mechanical damage. For Bako areas, 80-100% yield loss due to weed was
reported.
Around Melkassa area, leaving beans unweeded can result in 37-64% yield loss based on soil types. The
weeding can be started 2-3 weeks after sowing and continue to about 5 weeks after sowing.
 To minimize the weed problem and increase the yield of beans, weeding at least once around 30-35 days
after emergence is ideal. If the beans are sown in rows weeding should preferably be done by hoeing with a
light hoe or by using a row- weeder.
Hand weeding will normally be the cheapest and most effective. If enough laborers are not available
chemical weed control is possible.
In that case use of herbicides such as alachlor (2.92kg a.i./ha) or pendimethalin (1.50 kg a.i./ha/ or flurodifen
(2.0kg a.i./ha) after sowing and before emergence of beans is recommended. In areas where perennial weeds
such as Digitaria, Cynadon, Cyperus and Launea are a problem, one supplementary hand weeding might be
very important.
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Harvesting and post harvest handling

Beans can be harvested when all the pods are yellow. Early harvest of colored beans can cause
discoloration.
The plants are pulled out with the roots and this can preferably be done early in the morning
when the plants are slightly moist as this minimizes shattering.
The plants are stacked in the field until they are dry or brought to the threshing ground and
stacked there for drying. The threshing can be done by oxen or by driving over the plants with a
tractor. It can also be done by beating the beans with a stick.
After threshing, beans can be cleaned by hand winnowing or by a winnowing machine.
As several diseases are carried over from one season to the next on the straw and chaff left in
the field and on the threshing ground, a thorough sanitation should be carried out after the bean
crop, i.e. all residues should either be fed to cattle within three months after harvest or be burned.
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H. Soybean (Glycine max L.)

Origin:-

Uses of soybean
• It is an important source of human dietary protein and vegetable oil.
• Animal feed
• Being a legume crop it also plays significant role in soil improvement in the cropping
system by fixing atmospheric nitrogen via symbiotic bacteria.
• It is also good crop in crop rotation to break the buildup of pests and diseases.
Area and distribution
• In our country soybean is among the pulse crops being cultivated on an area of about
31,854.75 hectare with a production of about 636,531.01 quintals (CSA, 2013).
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Nutritional value
• The soybean seed on an average contains 40% protein, 20% oil, 35% carbohydrate and about
5% ash.
Botanical description
Height:- it is erect; bushy with a height of 0.5-2 m. Soybean varies in growth habit, height and
has two types determinate and indeterminate.
Roots:- The roots are tap with large number of secondary adventitious roots which may go as
deep as 1.5m, but most of the active root system is restricted to only 0.15-0.2m from soil surface.
Leaves:- Trifoliate leaves develop on main stem and branches and fall before the seeds are
mature.
Flowers:- Flowers develop as short axillary with terminal racemes in cluster of 8-16 flowers and
are white, pink or purple.
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Pod:- Pods are small straight, flattened or cylindrical containing 2-3 seeds, the seed colour
range from pale green and yellow to dark brown and green.

Climate requirement
Temperature:- Soybean grows well in warm and moist climate. A temperature of 25 0- 300
C is optimum for growth and development.
Altitude:- crop grows very well from 300 to 2200m above sea level.
RF:- The crop does well grows when well distributed average rain fall of 550 to 700mm
throughout the growing period.
The need for a long growing season and satisfactory soil moisture during flowering and
pod filling are very important for higher yield of soybean.
Soil:- It grows best under good soil conditions. A fertile and medium textured soil with pH
from 5.5 to 7 is usually best.
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Cultural Practices
Seedbed Preparation:- A uniform seedbed with sufficient planting depth and spacing, good
germination, weed control and better moisture retention, is a precondition for good yields.
Planting Date:- Planting time should be conceding with adequate moisture to satisfy the
crop water requirement.
Planting time varies depending on growing period areas and maturity period of the varieties.
Therefore prediction of harvesting time at dry time is necessary to avoid heavy rain at this
time because soybean is easily spoiled if it gets rain at harvest.
Early planting when the rain stars recommended to use the available water efficiently.
Planting Depth:- The seed depth varies depending on the type of the soil, however, usually
2.5cm-4cm depth for heavy soil; and 4cm-5cm depth for light soil are recommended.
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Spacing:- For early maturing varieties 40cm between rows and medium and late
maturing varieties 60cm between rows for all maturing groups 5cm between seeds
are recommended for proper growth and yield.
Fertilizer Utilization:- Compared to other legume crops, soybean requires higher
amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium and calcium mineral
elements.
To yield 1ton/ha, soybean requires about 80 kg nitrogen from the soil. Hence, 100
kg/ha DAP is usually applied before planting, however, it is recommended to study
the specific requirement of the farm as soybean responded differently to different
fertilizer levels at different locations.
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Weeds and their control

Soybean is very sensitive to weed competition, especially at the beginning of the growing season.
A study showed up to 84% yield advantage can be obtained by keeping the crop clean for the first

six weeks of growth. Pre-emergence herbicides should be applied immediately following planting

(i.e. within 24 hours after planting).

Weeds not controlled by the herbicides must be controlled by inter-row cultivation about 3-4

weeks after planting. Two to three hand weeding will also be required.

Diseases and their control

 Soybean can be affected by a number of diseases, such as bacterial blight, downy mildew, leaf

spot, soybean mosaic virus, many soil borne fungal pathogens and root-knot nematodes.
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Most of the pathogens transmit through seeds. The use of resistant varieties,
clean and healthy seeds, seed treatment with fungicides, appropriate sowing date
and good sanitary conditions are an important disease control measures.

Appropriate crop rotations should also be practiced to avoid an epidemic

outbreak of a disease.

 Insect pests and their control

Insects such as African ball worm, bean fly, and aphids attack soybean in the
field.
Some of the insects, such as aphids, often cause serious problem as transmit
viruses in addition to their direct damage.
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Control Insects can be effectively controlled by insecticides such as endosulphan

or dimethiote in an integrated manner with other cultural practices.
Birds

Soybean has epigeal type of germination, in which the seed is lifted up above the
surface of the soil and the cotyledon expand and develop several centimeters above
the soil during germination.
This nature of the crop exposed it to bird attack at seedling emergence. Usually 4-
5 days of bird scaring are sufficient to protect the seedlings from the attack.
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Harvesting: Soybean takes about 4 to 5 months to reach maturity and at maturity

leaves turn yellow and drop, the pods become dry and the seeds loose moisture
rapidly.
When the plant shows such indicators, the seeds should be harvested immediately
before pods start shattering to avoid yield and quality losses and for safe handling
and storage.
After harvesting, pods should be collected and threshed immediately on a clean
field and dried on the sun.
When the moisture content is less than 10%, seeds should be collected and stored
properly.
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I. Groundnut (Arachis hypogeae L.)

Origin:- Groundnuts probably originated in the region of eastern South Amercia where
a large number of species are found growing wild
Area and distribution
• In Ethiopia, the crop is grown in about 30,000 hectare mainly in: Eastern Hararghe,
Metekel zone and Eastern Wellega.
• Production is expanding due to its market value and resistance to drought.
• Under optimum condition, improved varieties give pod yield as high as 60 qt/ha. But,
national average yield is 8.29 qt/ha
Nutritional value
• Seed contains : 44 -56 % oil, 25-35 % protein and 12-18 % carbohydrate
• Its cake is a good source of crude protein (45-60 %) for livestock feed.
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Botanical description
Roots:- its taproot system enables the plant to explore a large volume of soil up to a depth
of 2 m for moisture and nutrients, with abundant nodules on main and lateral roots.
Leaves:- The leaves are alternate and pinnate, with three to four leaflets carried on long
petioles. Leaves are obovate and softly hairy and about 3-5cm long.
Inflorescences:- Yellow flowers carried on auxiliary branches are small; about 12 mm
long. It is a self-pollinating crop, although out-crossing to the extent of about 2% takes
place in the areas of high bee activity.
About 7-10 days after fertilization, the receptacle thickens, elongates, and forces the ovary
downward into the ground.
 The long carpophore bearing the fertilized ovule is known as the “peg” and the action of
burying of the immature pod is called “pegging.”
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Kernel:- Mature pods (8.0 x 1.0-2.5 cm) are fibrous, containing two to four
spherical or ovoid kernels.
The kernels are without endosperm and its oil content varies significantly with
variety, seed size, season, and cultural practices.
Special characteristic
• Groundnut- annual plant that grows best under hot and sunny areas.
• Groundnut bears floral structure above ground, complete fertilization and
develops fruit/pod in the soil.
• Seven to ten days after fertilization, the embryo will enter into the soil.
• Depending on soil condition, pods or the fruiting structure can reach a depth of
3-10 cm in the soil.
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Climate requirement
Temperature:- groundnut is a tropical crop. It requires long growing season which
are free from frost. Lower limit for germination is 18 ºc, 20-30 ºc results in 95%
germination.
The optimum temperature for vegetative growth is between 27 ºc and 30 ºc. The
number of leaves on the groundnut plant increases as the temperatures increase from
20-35 ºc.
Stem growth is also enhanced as temperatures increases, however, the minimum level
being 20 ºc.
The warmer the environment, the faster the plant reaches the reproductive phase.
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Rainfall:- Grow and yield well in areas receiving 500-1250 mm of well distributed rainfall.
Adequate moisture is necessary for proper germination and good plant stand.
Groundnut cannot with stand frost or water logging.
Groundnut has specific moisture need due to their peculiar feature of producing pods
underground. Water requirement in groundnut reach a maximum during flowering and pod
formation.
Ideal soil:- Well drained, light color, loose, friable, sandy loam soil with soil pH 5.8-6.2 and
well supplied with calcium and moderate amount of organic matter.
In loose, friable, sandy-loam soils germination of seeds and emergence of seedling are high. The
peg can penetrate the soil easily and the pod can be removed from the soil with minimum losses
and the soil does not adhere excessively the fleshy dug pods.
 Adequate calcium is essential in soils for the production of pods with more of sound, mature
kernels.
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Cultural Practices
Seedbed Preparation:- A uniform seedbed with sufficient planting depth and spacing, good
germination, weed control and better moisture retention, is a precondition for good yields.

Planting Date:- Planting time for groundnut vary from place to place depending on climatic
condition. In Ethiopia: East Hararghe, mid April is the planting time. But, western Ethiopia, planted
till mid June when mid May is the appropriate planting time for middle Awash.

Planting Depth:- The planting depth of 5 -7.5cm ensures well plant development and optimum
production. Shallow planted seeds (less than 5cm deep) will be planted in relatively warmer soil than
seed planted at levels deeper than 7.5cm.

Seeds planted in shallow soils run the risk of desiccation resulting in poor stands. Shallow planting of
seed (< 5cm) can only be considered when enough moisture is available and the climate is moist,
otherwise poor stands will result.

 In situation where moisture is not limiting 5cm is the ideal planting depth.
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 Spacing:- It is very difficult to find the perfect spacing, as all the seeds, which have
planted, do not necessarily germinate.
 Dense spacing can result in competition between plants for light, nutrition and
moisture, resulting in plants which only develop a main stem with few pods.
 Plants that are densely spaced are thus forced to produce on the upper most nodes of
the main stem, resulting in delayed pod formation, immature pods and thus an
inferior yield.
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Plants in low populations produce more side branches than normally spaced plants
and produce large quantities of pods per plant, but total yield per hectare will be poor.

Generally 60cm between row/ridges and 10 cm between plants for irrigated areas
when for marginal areas like Babile 35cm between rows and 25 cm between plants is
recommended.
Seed Rate:- The seed rate is determined depending on the seed size and spacing 60-
110kg/ha of shelled seed.

Earthing Up:- The main purpose of Earthing up is to bring the soil as close as
possible to the pegs thus avoiding the problem of hulling pegs in the air and more
pegs will have the chance to produce pods.
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Crop rotation:- Groundnuts should be grown in rotation with other crops,

especially grass type crops. According to literature groundnut should not follow
soybeans and cotton because of disease hazards.
Groundnuts have been show to improve the yield of the subsequent maize and
grain crops up to 20%.
Fertilizer Utilization:- Groundnut is a nodule bearing plant. It may or may not
able to fix nitrogen for its own use depending on the presence or absence of the
right type of bacteria in the soil.
The crop has a marked ability to use fertilizer residues not utilized by previous
crops. The other important fertilizer highly recommended for the production of
groundnut pod is calcium.
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Weeds and their control

Seed crops of groundnut should be kept free of weeds; weeding can be done when
the crop is 2-3 weeks old, at flowering, and at the time of peg formation.
Weeds can be controlled by applying herbicides like promotion or lasso at 1-2 kg
a.i. dissolved in 500-600 L of water per hectare immediately after sowing.

Diseases and their control

• Leaf spot, ground rust, scorch, web blotch, rhizoctonia rot and virus diseases
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Insect pests and their control

1. Groundnut Aphid ( Aphis craccivora)
• It is shiny black/brown in color and mostly feeds on tender shoots and fruiting stalk
(Pegs). It transmits groundnut rosette virus

Symptoms

• Plants take on a bushy appearance; dwarfing.

• Leaves show abnormal colors;

• Honeydew or sooty mould; necrotic areas.

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Cultural control
• Early and dense sowings when early sowing allows plants to start flowering
before aphids appear while dense sowings provide a barrier to aphids
penetrating in from field edges.

• Sanitary measures are important within crops and between seasons to prevent
the spread of viruses for which A. craccivora is a vector.

• Virus-infected plant material should be removed after harvest and volunteer

plants or weeds that harbor viruses should also be destroyed.

Chemical Control
• Marshal, Deltanate, polo and Endosulfan can be used
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2 . Thrips (Thrip tabaci )

• It feeds on younger leaves and the leaves become curled, slivery and grey spotted in
colour. It transmit leaf curl virus
Control methods:- Spray insecticides like
• Ripcord @ 3 lit/ha
• Mitac 20% EC/ ULV @ 2 lit/ha
• Thiodan 25% ULV @ 3lit/ha
• Dimethoate 40% ULV @ 1.5 lit/ha
3. Jassid, (Empoasca lybica)
Control methods:- Using insecticides:
• Dimecron 250 ULV @ 3 lit. /ha
• Actellic 50EC/ULV @ 2lt/ha
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• Thiodan @ 3 lt /ha
• Karate @ 2 lt/ha suppress the population

4. Cotton leaf worms (Spodoptera lithorallis)

Chemical Control:- Spray- Thiodan, Malathion, Sevin and Durusban
5. African bollworm
Cultural Control Method:- Field sanitation and effective Land preparation
Chemical Control Method
• Thiodan/Endosulfan 25%ULV- 3 liters/ha
• Thiodan/Endosulfan 35% EC-2.5 liters/ha
• Katare/Lambda cyhalothrin 0.8%-2liters/ha
• Decis /Deltamethrin-2liters/ha
• Curacuron/ selecron- 2liters/ha
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6. Termites
1. Preventing termites gaining access to plants
• Seed dressing or placing persistent insecticidal barriers in the soil around the roots
• Poisoning the mounds with organo chlorins.
2. Cultural practices
a. Deep plowing or hand tillage
• Exposes termites to desiccation and to predators, thus reducing their number in the
crops.
• Pre-planting tillage also destroys the tunnels built by termites and restricts their
foraging activities and associated damage to crops.
• Removal of the queen and/or destruction of the nest for control of mound-building
termites.
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b. Crop rotation
• May be useful in reducing the buildup of termites since intensive monoculture
for long periods makes plants more susceptible to termite attack.
c. The removal of residues and other debris from the field
• May reduce potential termite food supplies and hence lead to a reduction in
termite numbers and subsequent attack.
d. Mulches
• May either increase or decrease the incidence of termites depending on whether
they have any repellent properties.