Chapter 4

Digital Transmission

4.1
 DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

In this section, we see how we can represent digital

data by using digital signals. The conversion involves
three techniques: line coding, block coding, and
scrambling. Line coding is always needed; block
coding and scrambling may or may not be needed.

4.2
 Line coding and decoding

4.3
 Characteristics
Signal Element Versus Data Element
A data element is the smallest entity that represents a piece of information.
A signal element is the shortest unit of a digital signal.
In other words, data elements are what we need to send; Signal elements are what
we can send
r: is the number of data elements carried by each signal element
Data Rate (bit rate) Versus Signal Rate (pulse rate, modulation rate, baud rate)
The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s
In data communications, we want to increase the data rate N (increase the speed of
transmission) while decreasing the signal rate S (decrease the bandwidth
requirement).
1
S  c N 
r
c: case factor (between 0 and 1). Chose average value c = ½

4.4
 Signal element versus data element

4.5
 Characteristics
Baud rate determines the required bandwidth for a digital signal
=> the bandwidth (range of frequencies) is proportional to the signal rate
(baud rate). The minimum bandwidth can be given as:
1
Bmin  S  c N 
r
The maximum data rate if the bandwidth of the channel is given.
Br
N max 
c

DC Components: When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while,
The spectrum creates very low frequencies. These frequencies around zero, called
DC components, present problems for a system that cannot pass low frequencies
=> need a scheme with no DC component.

4.6
 A signal is carrying data in which one data element is
encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is
100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is
between 0 and 1?

4.7
 Effect of lack of synchronization

4.8
 In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent
faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per
second does the receiver receive if the data rate is
1 kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?

4.9
 Line coding schemes

4.10
 Unipolar NRZ scheme

Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage level

4.11
Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

level of voltage determines

value of the bit

inversion or lack of inversion

determines value of the bit

 Both have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd.

 Both have a DC component problem.
5-12
 A system is using NRZ-I to transfer 1Mbps data. What
are the average signal rate and minimum bandwidth?

4.13
 RZ scheme

3 Voltage levels: +, -, 0
0 = Transition from negative to zero
1 = Transition from positive to zero
It solves the synchronization problem, DC component problem
It handles both strings of 1s and 0s
Two signal changes for each bit
• More transitions
• Occupies more bandwidth

4.14
 Polar biphase: Manchester and
differential Manchester schemes

Signal changes at the middle of the bit interval.

Signal change → bit representation and synchronization
0 is represented by a high voltage for the first half of the bit, followed by a low
voltage (or a negative voltage) in the last half. 1 is the exact opposite.

4.15
 Polar biphase: Manchester and
differential Manchester schemes
The inversion at the middle is used for synchronization
0 = Transition at the beginning of bit period
1 = No transition at the beginning of bit period
Disadvantages:
• Complex
• Higher frequency components (as RZ)

4.16
 Polar biphase: Manchester and differential Manchester schemes

4.17
 Note

In Manchester and differential

Manchester encoding, the transition
at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.

4.18
 Note

The minimum bandwidth of Manchester

and differential Manchester is 2 times
that of NRZ.

4.19
 Note

In bipolar encoding, we use three levels:

positive, zero, and negative.

4.20
 Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

Advantage
Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) • No DC component
=> Used for long distance communication • Synchronized only for 1s =>
synchronization problem for a long
sequence of 0s

4.21
 Multilevel

In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data

elements is encoded as a pattern of n
signal elements in which 2m ≤ Ln.

Multilevel:
m: length of the data binary pattern
B: binary data
n: the length of the signal pattern
L: number of levels in the signaling
L=2 → B(inary)
L=3 → T(ernary)
L=4 → Q(uaternary)

4.22
 Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme

Used in DSL

4.23
 Multilevel: 8B6T scheme
- Eight Binary, six Ternary
- Use with 100BASE-4T cable
- Mapping table in Appendix F
-Each signal have weight of 0 or +1 DC value

Weight = 0 Weight = +1 For DC balance

=> invert the third pattern

4.24
 Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme

4.25
 Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme

3 transition rules:
- Next bit = 0: no transition
- Next bit = 1, current level is not 0: next level = 0
- Next bit =1, current level = 0: next level is
opposite of the last nonzero level

4.26
 Summary of line coding schemes

polar

No DC

Worst case

4.27
 Block Coding • Synchronization
• Error detection capability

Note

Block coding is normally referred to as

mB/nB coding;
it replaces each m-bit group with an
n-bit group.

4.28
 Block coding concept

Step 1: Division

Step 2: Substitution

Step 3: Combination

4.29
 Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme

4.30
 Substitution in 4B/5B block coding

4.31
4B/5B mapping codes

4.32
 Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme

- 5 bit output has no more than one leading zero (left bit) and no
more than two trailing zeros (right bits)
-Increase the signal rate of NRZ-I (but less than the biphase
scheme)
- Do not solve the DC component problem of NRZ-I

4.33
 We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the
minimum required bandwidth, using a combination of
4B/5B and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?

4.34
 The input stream to a 4B/5B block encoder is
0100-0000-0000-0000-0000-0001.
Answer the following questions:
a. What is the output stream?
b. What is the length of the longest consecutive
sequence of 0s in the input?
c. What is the length of the longest consecutive sequence
of 0s in the output?

4.35
 8B/10B block encoding

Advantage: better error detection capability and synchronization

Disadvantage: more bandwidth

4.36
 AMI used with scrambling

Scrambling:
- Done at the same time as encoding
- Avoid a long sequence of 0s → synchronization
→ suitable for long distance communication
- Two scrambling techniques: B8ZS, HDB3

4.37
 Note

B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive

zeros with 000VB0VB.

4.38
 Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique

4.39
 Note

HDB3 substitutes four consecutive

zeros with 000V or B00V depending
on the number of nonzero pulses after
the last substitution.

4.40
 Different situations in HDB3 scrambling technique

4.41
 What is the result of scrambling the sequence
11100000000000 using one of the following
scrambling techniques? Assume that the last non-zero
signal level has been positive.
a. B8ZS
b. HDB3 (The number of non zero pules is odd at
initial time)

4.42
 ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

We have seen in Chapter 3 that a digital signal is

superior to an analog signal. The tendency today is to
change an analog signal to digital data. In this section
we describe two techniques, pulse code modulation
and delta modulation.

4.43
 Components of PCM encoder

4.44
 Three different sampling methods for PCM

4.45
 Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.

4.46
 Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals

4.47
For an intuitive example of the Nyquist theorem, let us
sample a simple sine wave at three sampling rates: f s = 4f (2
times the Nyquist rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and
fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure 4.24 shows the
sampling and the subsequent recovery of the signal.

It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create

a good approximation of the original sine wave (part a).
Oversampling in part b can also create the same
approximation, but it is redundant and unnecessary.
Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not produce
a signal that looks like the original sine wave.
4.48
Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates

Sampling at the
Nyquist rate can create
a good approximation of
the original sine wave.

Oversampling can also

create the same
approximation, but is
redundant and
unnecessary.

Sampling below the

Nyquist rate does not
produce a signal that
looks like the original
sine wave.

5-49
 Consider the revolution of a hand of a clock. The second
hand of a clock has a period of 60 s. According to the
Nyquist theorem, we need to sample the hand every 30 s
(Ts = T/2 or fs = 2f ). The sample points, in order, are 12,
6, 12, 6, 12, and 6. The receiver of the samples cannot tell
if the clock is moving forward or backward. In part b, we
sample at double the Nyquist rate (every 15 s). The
sample points are 12, 3, 6, 9, and 12. The clock is moving
forward. In part c, we sample below the Nyquist rate (T s =
3/4T or fs = 4/3 f ). The sample points are 12, 9, 6, 3, and
12. Although the clock is moving forward, the receiver
thinks that the clock is moving backward.
4.50
 Sampling of a clock with only one hand

4.51
 Telephone companies digitize voice by assuming a
maximum frequency of 4000 Hz. The sampling rate
therefore is 8000 samples per second.

4.52
 A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

4.53
 A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

4.54
 Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal
1. Assume original analog
signal has amplitude
between Vmin and Vmax

2. Divide the range into L

zones, each of height
Delta =(V max -Vmin)/L

3. Assign quantized value of 0

to L-1 into the midpoint
of each zone

4. Approximate the value of the

sample amplitude to the
quantized value

- Δ/2 < error < Δ/2

4.55
 The number of quantization levels changes
the signal-to-noise ratio of the signal:
SNRdB = 6.02nb + 1.76 [dB]
nb: number of bits per sample
What is the SNRdB in the previous example?

4.56
 A telephone subscriber line must have an SNR dB above
40. What is the minimum number of bits per sample?

4.57
 Bit rate = sampling rate * number of bit per sample
= f s* nb
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,
assuming 8 bits per sample?

4.58
 Components of a PCM decoder

4.59
 PCM bandwidth of the signal (low-pass signal)
Bmin = S = c*N*1/r = c * f s* nb * 1/r
= c * 2* B * nb * 1/r
With c=1/2, r = 1
Bmin = B * nb
minimum bandwidth of the digital signal is nb times greater than the
bandwidth of the analog signal.

We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz. If we send the

analog signal, we need a channel with a minimum
bandwidth of 4 kHz. If we digitize the signal and send 8
bits per sample, we need a channel with a minimum
bandwidth of 8 × 4 kHz = 32 kHz.

4.60
 We have sampled a low-pass signal with a
bandwidth of 200KHz using 1024 levels of
quantization.
a. Calculate the bit rate of the digitized signal.
b. Calculate the SNRdB for this signal.
c. Calculate the PCM bandwidth of this signal.

4.61
 The process of delta modulation

Reduce the complexity of PCM

No codewords here; bits are sent one after another

4.62
 TRANSMISSION MODES

The transmission of binary data across a link can be

accomplished in either parallel or serial mode. In
parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock
tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
While there is only one way to send parallel data, there
are three subclasses of serial transmission:
asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.

4.63
 Data transmission and modes

4.64
 Parallel transmission

- Increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission

- High cost
=>Suitable for short distance transmission

4.65
 Serial transmission

4.66
Asynchronous transmission

We send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more

stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
There may be a gap between each byte.

It is “asynchronous at the byte level,” bits are still

synchronized; their durations are the same.
5-67
 Synchronous transmission

- The bit stream is combined into longer “ frames” which may contain
multiple bytes
- Synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission
=> Used to transmit of data from one computer to another

4.68
 Note

In synchronous transmission, we send

bits one after another without start or
stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility
of the receiver to group the bits.

4.69
 Note

The isochronous mode provides

synchronized for the entire stream of
bits. In other words, it guarantees that
the data arrive at a fixed rate.
TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second used this
mode

4.70