CSE-205

Algorithms

Asymptotic Notation
 Analyzing Algorithms
• Predict the amount of resources required:
• memory: how much space is needed?
• computational time: how fast the algorithm runs?

• FACT: running time grows with the size of the input

• Input size (number of elements in the input)
– Size of an array, polynomial degree, # of elements in a matrix, # of bits in
the binary representation of the input, vertices and edges in a graph

Def: Running time = the number of primitive operations (steps)

executed before termination
– Arithmetic operations (+, -, *), data movement, control, decision making
(if, while), comparison
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 Algorithm Analysis: Example
• Alg.: MIN (a[1], …, a[n])
m ← a[1];
for i ← 2 to n
if a[i] < m
then m ← a[i];
• Running time:
– the number of primitive operations (steps) executed
before termination
T(n) =1 [first step] + (n) [for loop] + (n-1) [if condition] +
(n-1) [the assignment in then] = 3n - 1
• Order (rate) of growth:
– The leading term of the formula
– Expresses the asymptotic behavior of the algorithm

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 Typical Running Time Functions
• 1 (constant running time):
– Instructions are executed once or a few times

• logN (logarithmic)
– A big problem is solved by cutting the original problem in smaller
sizes, by a constant fraction at each step

• N (linear)
– A small amount of processing is done on each input element

• N logN
– A problem is solved by dividing it into smaller problems, solving
them independently and combining the solution

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 Typical Running Time Functions
• N2 (quadratic)
– Typical for algorithms that process all pairs of data items (double
nested loops)

• N3 (cubic)
– Processing of triples of data (triple nested loops)

• NK (polynomial)
• 2N (exponential)
– Few exponential algorithms are appropriate for practical use

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Growth of Functions

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Complexity Graphs

log(n
)
Complexity Graphs

n
log(n)

log(n
)
Complexity Graphs

n1 n
0 3

n
2
n
log(n)
Complexity Graphs (log scale)

3
n n
n n 2

2
n

n1
0

1.1
n
 Algorithm Complexity
• Worst Case Complexity:
– the function defined by the maximum number of steps
taken on any instance of size n
• Best Case Complexity:
– the function defined by the minimum number of steps
taken on any instance of size n
• Average Case Complexity:
– the function defined by the average number of steps
taken on any instance of size n
Best, Worst, and Average Case Complexity

Number Worst Case

of steps
Complexity

Average Case
Complexity

Best Case
Complexity

N
(input size)
 Doing the Analysis
• It’s hard to estimate the running time exactly
– Best case depends on the input
– Average case is difficult to compute
– So we usually focus on worst case analysis
• Easier to compute
• Usually close to the actual running time
• Strategy: find a function (an equation) that, for large n, is an
upper bound to the actual function (actual number of steps,
memory usage, etc.)
Upper bound
Actual function
Lower bound
 Motivation for Asymptotic Analysis
• An exact computation of worst-case running time
can be difficult
– Function may have many terms:
• 4n2 - 3n log n + 17.5 n - 43 n⅔ + 75
• An exact computation of worst-case running time
is unnecessary
– Remember that we are already approximating running
time by using RAM model
 Classifying functions by their
Asymptotic Growth Rates (1/2)
• asymptotic growth rate, asymptotic order, or
order of functions
– Comparing and classifying functions that ignores
• constant factors and
• small inputs.
• The Sets big oh O(g), big theta Θ(g), big omega
Ω(g)
 Classifying functions by their
Asymptotic Growth Rates (2/2)
• O(g(n)), Big-Oh of g of n, the Asymptotic Upper
Bound;
• Θ(g(n)), Theta of g of n, the Asymptotic Tight
Bound; and
• Ω(g(n)), Omega of g of n, the Asymptotic Lower
Bound.
 Big-O

• What does it mean?

– If f(n) = O(n2), then:
• f(n) can be larger than n2 sometimes, but…
• We can choose some constant c and some value n0 such
that for every value of n larger than n0 : f(n) < cn2
• That is, for values larger than n0, f(n) is never more than a
constant multiplier greater than n2
• Or, in other words, f(n) does not grow more than a constant
factor faster than n2.

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Visualization of O(g(n))
cg(n)

f(n)

n0

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 Examples

– 2n = O(n ):
2 2n
3 2
≤ cn 3
⇒ 2 ≤ cn ⇒ c = 1 and n0= 2

– n2 = O(n2): n2 ≤ cn2 ⇒ c ≥ 1 ⇒ c = 1 and n0= 1

– 1000n2+1000n = O(n2):

1000n2+1000n ≤ cn2 ≤ cn2+ 1000n ⇒ c=1001 and n0 = 1

– n = O(n ):
2 n ≤ cn 2
⇒ cn ≥ 1 ⇒ c = 1 and n0= 1

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Big-O

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 More Big-O
• Prove that:
• Let c = 21 and n0 = 4
• 21n2 > 20n2 + 2n + 5 for all n > 4
n2 > 2n + 5 for all n > 4
TRUE

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 Tight bounds
• We generally want the tightest bound we can
find.
• While it is true that n2 + 7n is in O(n3), it is more
interesting to say that it is in O(n2)

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 Big Omega – Notation
• Ω() – A lower bound

– n2 = Ω(n)
– Let c = 1, n0 = 2
– For all n ≥ 2, n2 > 1 × n

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Visualization of Ω(g(n))
f(n)

cg(n)

n0

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 Θ-notation

• Big-O is not a tight upper bound. In other words

n = O(n2)
• Θ provides a tight bound

• In other words,

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Visualization of Θ(g(n))
c2g(n)

f(n)

c1g(n)

n0

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 A Few More Examples
• n = O(n2) ≠ Θ(n2)
• 200n2 = O(n2) = Θ(n2)
• n2.5 ≠ O(n2) ≠ Θ(n2)

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 Example 2
• Prove that:
• Let c = 21 and n0 = 10
• 21n3 > 20n3 + 7n + 1000 for all n > 10
n3 > 7n + 5 for all n > 10
TRUE, but we also need…
• Let c = 20 and n0 = 1
• 20n3 < 20n3 + 7n + 1000 for all n ≥ 1
TRUE

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 Example 3
• Show that
• Let c = 2 and n0 = 5

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 Asymptotic Notations - Examples
• Θ notation
– n2/2 – n/2 =
Θ(n2)
– (6n3 + 1)lgn/(n + 1) =
– n vs. n 2
n≠ Θ(n 2
lgn)
Θ(n2)
• Ω notation • O notation
– n3 vs. n2 n3 = – 2n2 vs. n3 2n2 = O(n3)
– n vs. logn Ω(n2)
n= – n2 vs. n2 n2 = O(n2)
– n vs. n2 Ω(logn)
n≠ – n3 vs. nlogn n3 ≠ O(nlgn)
Ω(n2)

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 Asymptotic Notations - Examples
• For each of the following pairs of functions, either f(n) is
O(g(n)), f(n) is Ω(g(n)), or f(n) = Θ(g(n)). Determine
which relationship is correct.
– f(n) = log n2; g(n) = log n + 5 f(n) = Θ
– f(n) = n; g(n) = log n2 (g(n))
f(n) =
– f(n) = log log n; g(n) = log n Ω(g(n))
f(n) =
– f(n) = n; g(n) = log2 n O(g(n))
f(n) =
– f(n) = n log n + n; g(n) = log n Ω(g(n))
f(n) =
– f(n) = 10; g(n) = log 10 Ω(g(n))
f(n) =
– f(n) = 2n; g(n) = 10n2 Θ(g(n))
f(n) =
– f(n) = 2n; g(n) = 3n Ω(g(n))
f(n) =
O(g(n))
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 Simplifying Assumptions
• 1. If f(n) = O(g(n)) and g(n) = O(h(n)), then f(n) = O(h(n))
• 2. If f(n) = O(kg(n)) for any k > 0, then f(n) = O(g(n))
• 3. If f1(n) = O(g1(n)) and f2(n) = O(g2(n)),
• then f1(n) + f2(n) = O(max (g1(n), g2(n)))
• 4. If f1(n) = O(g1(n)) and f2(n) = O(g2(n)),
• then f1(n) * f2(n) = O(g1(n) * g2(n))

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 Example
• Code:
• a = b;

• Complexity:

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 Example
• Code:
• sum = 0;
• for (i=1; i <=n; i++)
• sum += n;

• Complexity:

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 Example
• Code:
• sum = 0;
• for (j=1; j<=n; j++)
• for (i=1; i<=j; i++)
• sum++;
• for (k=0; k<n; k++)
• A[k] = k;
• Complexity:

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 Example
• Code:
• sum1 = 0;
• for (i=1; i<=n; i++)
• for (j=1; j<=n; j++)
• sum1++;
• Complexity:

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 Example
• Code:
• sum2 = 0;
• for (i=1; i<=n; i++)
• for (j=1; j<=i; j++)
• sum2++;
• Complexity:

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 Example
• Code:
• sum1 = 0;
• for (k=1; k<=n; k*=2)
• for (j=1; j<=n; j++)
• sum1++;
• Complexity:

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 Example
• Code:
• sum2 = 0;
• for (k=1; k<=n; k*=2)
• for (j=1; j<=k; j++)
• sum2++;
• Complexity:

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 Recurrences
Def.: Recurrence = an equation or inequality that
describes a function in terms of its value on
smaller inputs, and one or more base cases
• E.g.: T(n) = T(n-1) + n
• Useful for analyzing recurrent algorithms
• Methods for solving recurrences
– Substitution method
– Recursion tree method
– Master method
– Iteration method
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