GROUP 3

LAGUNAY, DARYL GRACE A.

MARCELINO, JULEX S.
Surface Processes
The wide range of conditions found in different
parts of the globe at present reflect the variety of
natural processes that operate to shape the surface
of the Earth. Land areas are continually being
reduced and their shape modified by weathering
and erosion, and the general term for this is
denudation. Rocks exposed to the atmosphere
undergo weathering from atmospheric agents
such as rain and frost.
Weathering
Weathering
Weathering is the deterioration of rocks, soils
and minerals as well as wood and artificial
materials through contact with water,
atmospheric gases, and biological organisms.
Weathering occurs in situ (on-site, with little or
no movement), and so is distinct from erosion,
which involves the transport of rocks and
minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow,
wind, waves and gravity.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering does not break rocks into
smaller fragments through wind, water, and ice
(that's physical weathering). Nor does it break
rocks apart through the action of plants or
animals (that's biological weathering). Instead,
it changes the chemical composition of the
rock, usually through carbonation, hydration,
hydrolysis or oxidation.
Chemical Weathering

The processes most commonly involved in

chemical weathering are listed in Table 3.1.
Their rate of operation depends upon the
presence of water and is greater in wet climates
than in dry climates.
Table 3.1 Some commonly occurring processes in chemical weathering
 Table 3.1 Some commonly occurring processes in chemical weathering

HYDROLYSIS Hydrogen ions in percolating water

replace mineral cations: no oxidation-
reduction occurs.
LEACHING The migration of ions produced by the
above processes. Note: the mobility of
ions depends upon their ionic potential:
Ca, Mg, Na, K are easily leached by
moving water, Fe is more resistant, Si is
difficult to leach and Al is almost
immobile.

CATION Absorption onto the surface of

EXCHANGE negatively charged clay of
positively charged cations in solution,
especially Ca, H, K, Mg.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical Weathering
In rainy areas, rocks can slowly dissolve because of the
rainwater. This mostly happens to rocks like limestone.
Rainwater contains a bit of acid from the air, which makes
the rock slowly disappear. This can create holes and
channels on the ground.
In places with a lot of limestone, you might see weird
holes and cracks on the surface. These holes can
sometimes fill with dirt from above. There are also cracks
in the rock that get wider because of the rain. These
cracks can even become big holes in the ground where
water flows underground.
Chemical Weathering
Sometimes, the water underground can make cool
things like caves. Inside caves, water can create
icicle-like things hanging from the roof
(stalactites) and bumps on the ground
(stalagmites). It's like nature's art!
So, when it rains a lot in certain places, the rocks
can slowly disappear, and it can create interesting
underground worlds and formations.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical Weathering
Chemical weathering affects all types of rocks, but some are more
resistant than others. Limestone is easily weathered, while sandstones
and shales are more resistant. Igneous rocks and quartzites are the
toughest. In places with deep weathering, you'll find a layer of decayed
material on top of the solid rocks below. In jointed igneous rocks like
granite, groundwater turns acidic and can make the granite crumble,
sometimes several meters deep. In some places, like Australia and
Dartmoor, England, you can find deep weathered rock layers, especially
near faults, sometimes containing pockets of unweathered rock. In Hong
Kong, there are significant depths of weathering, ranging from
completely weathered granite at the surface to fresh granite as deep as 60
meters.
Chemical Weathering
Chemical Weathering
Granite tors, which are tall granite rock formations, form because
of how the rocks naturally crack or "joint." Tors develop in areas
where the joints are farther apart, preserving solid granite, while
nearby areas with closely spaced joints weather more easily. This
happens especially above the water table. In regions with dense
vegetation and heavy rainfall, like the East Asian monsoon areas,
deep layers of weathered rock can form. In places like the
Cameron Highlands in Malaya, you can find weathered rock
layers several hundreds of meters deep. In dry climates, chemical
weathering is less severe due to limited water, resulting in thin
layers of weathered rock. In extremely dry areas, mechanical
processes like erosion become the primary agents of weathering.
Chemical Weathering
Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical weathering is also known as physical
weathering. In this type of weathering, a large rock is
disintegrated into smaller pieces of rocks. When
rocks disintegrate or break up without experiencing
any change in their chemical composition, it is
known as mechanical weathering. Thermal
expansion and contraction that happens due to the
increase or decrease in temperature. This process
causes the rock to break into fragments.
Mechanical Weathering
Mechanical Weathering
Unloading
Denudation, which is the removal of rock cover, reduces the
weight on an area and relieves stress in the rocks underneath. This
relief of pressure causes a slight vertical expansion, leading to the
formation of rock sheets. This is often seen in igneous rocks like
granite, where these sheet-like layers can be up to about a meter
thick. In valleys, these sheet-like parting surfaces often align with
the valley sides and become nearly horizontal at the valley bottom.
As you go deeper into the rock, the number of these sheet-like
joints decreases. However, when deep quarrying is done in an
igneous rock, these parting surfaces may suddenly crack open with
a loud noise as the rock's stress is released. This process of
creating smaller, flat pieces of rock in a similar way is called
"spalling."
 Frost Action

In cold climates, the repeated freezing and thawing of water on exposed rock surfaces cause
the rock to break into flakes and angular pieces. This process is called the "ice-wedge"
process and results in the formation of scree piles on mountain slopes, giving high mountains
a jagged appearance.Water gets into the rocks through small openings like pores, cracks, and
fissures. When this water freezes, it expands by about 10%, exerting a powerful pressure (like
a miniature explosion) on the surrounding rock layers. This expansion breaks off outer layers
of rock, which then fall and gather as scree or talus heaps at lower levels. Over time, these
loose fragments can become consolidated into deposits known as breccia.
This process continues as more fragments are removed, exposing the rock surface to further
frost action. Joints and cleavage planes in the rocks play a role in how the fragments form,
and generally, only larger pieces above 0.6 mm (the upper limit of silt) are produced by this
freezing process. Well-known examples of scree piles can be found in the English Lake
District, particularly along the eastern side of Wastwater where the mountain slopes drop
steeply to the water.
Frost Action

Permafrost is ground that remains frozen year-round, typically for many

years or even thousands of years. In permafrost areas, the spaces within
rocks and soil are filled with ice. This condition is found in regions
within the Arctic Circle and extends southward in places like northern
Canada and Siberia, sometimes reaching as far as 60 degrees north
latitude. It's estimated that about one-fifth of the Earth's land surface has
permafrost beneath it. When sediments have temperatures below
freezing (0°C) but contain no ice, they are referred to as "dry
permafrost."Permafrost often forms a barrier just below the surface, and
its thickness can vary from less than 1 meter to hundreds of meters. In
some places like Alaska and Spitzbergen, permafrost layers have been
found to be over 400 meters thick. The formation and persistence of
permafrost require a cold climate with an average annual air
temperature of -1°C or lower.
 Frost Action

In areas with continuous permafrost, the upper limit of the permanently

frozen ground is typically located between 10 and 60 centimeters below the
surface. However, in well-drained soils, the top layer can thaw during the
warmer season, reaching depths of one to two meters. This thawed layer is
called the "active layer .“ When this upper layer of soil thaws, it releases a
lot of water from within. Since the water cannot drain through the still-
frozen ground below, it accumulates in the soil. This excess water then
flows down slopes, even on relatively gentle slopes as low as 3 degrees.
This movement of soil and water is significant, and it happens quite rapidly.
As a result, the landscape in these areas becomes smooth and rounded due
to this process. Near the edges of permafrost areas, where slopes are
covered with a mix of fine and coarse rock fragments, the surface material
moves slowly over the frozen ground beneath it due to repeated freezing
and thawing. This process is known as "solifluction" or "soil flow."
Frost Action
Frost Action
Frost Heaving

Frost heaving occurs when the soil freezes and forms layers of ice near
the surface. These ice layers are separated by frozen soil with water in
it. The ice layers can vary in thickness from a few millimeters to about
30 mm. The total lifting of the ground surface is about equal to the
combined thickness of these ice layers. Frost heaving is a common
issue in cold regions like the Arctic, Alaska, Canada, Northern Europe,
and northern Russia. It causes problems for building foundations,
bridges, and road and rail construction and maintenance. One solution
for buildings in these areas is to elevate them slightly above the ground
with a big open space underneath. This allows cold air to circulate
beneath the building, preventing the ground from freezing and causing
damage. Also, utility pipes are placed above ground to avoid them
getting damaged by the ground moving due to frost heaving.
 Insolation

In hot and arid regions, rocks experience significant temperature

changes between day and night. During the day, they expand, and at
night, they contract. This repeated cycle weakens the rock's structure,
causing outer layers to break away from the cooler rock beneath. This
process is known as exfoliation, and the weathering caused by it is
called insolation. In desert areas, daily temperature fluctuations can be
substantial, often reaching 30°C or even 50°C. The rocks' surfaces
experience even greater temperature changes than the surrounding air.
These temperature variations create strain within the rock due to the
unequal expansion and contraction of its different minerals and textures,
making the rock more vulnerable to damage.
 Insolation

Rocks with more consistent mineral composition and thermal

expansion rates are less affected by insolation. In contrast, rocks
containing various minerals with different expansion rates are
more prone to exfoliation. Natural insolation in rock faces can
lead to the development of small cracks, some of which are very
fine. These cracks can allow water and dissolved salts to enter,
further promoting the decomposition and disintegration of the
rock. Additionally, the crystallization of salts in confined spaces,
like cracks and pores, can accelerate the weathering process,
particularly in desert and coastal areas, such as along the Arabian
and Persian coasts.
Biological Weathering
Biological weathering, caused by plants and animals, may
seem minor individually but has a significant impact when
combined. Plants play a role by retaining moisture, keeping
rock surfaces damp and promoting water's ability to break
down rocks. The decay of rocks is also helped by organic
matter produced by plants, as well as bacteria and fungi.
These microorganisms produce organic acids that mix with
rainwater, making it more effective at dissolving rocks.
Bacteria living in the weathered area can mobilize various
elements, aiding the weathering process and sometimes even
damaging materials like concrete and steel. Their by-products
can accumulate and cause the ground to expand if not washed
away by rainwater. Furthermore, plant roots can physically
break rocks by growing into cracks and pushing them apart,
contributing to the mechanical breakdown of rocks.
Global Trends
Global Trends
Global Trends
Erosion and Deposition

Rivers, wind, moving ice and water

waves are capable of loosening,
dislodging and carrying particles of
soil, sediment and larger pieces of
rock. They are therefore described as
the agents of erosion.
 The work of rivers

Rivers, through erosion, widen and deepen their

valleys, especially during floods. They transport a
lot of material, some in suspension and some in
solution, downstream and into the sea. The
energy from the moving sediment, including fine
particles and boulders during floods, can also
wear down the river channel, creating features
like pot-holes in the riverbed. These water-worn
surfaces can indicate past river courses at higher
levels.
 Valleys
The formation and evolution of valleys and river systems can
be understood in different stages. It typically starts when new
land surfaces emerge due to geological processes like sea floor
uplift. As streams begin to flow over these surfaces, they carve
out valleys, primarily following the natural slope but also
influenced by any irregularities in the terrain.
In lowland areas, present-day valleys are often shaped by the
streams currently running through them. These streams were
most active during interglacial periods when their water flow
was higher than it is today. In contrast, valleys in mountainous
and glaciated regions have been shaped by various forces,
including avalanches, landslides, and glaciers.
 Valleys
Over time, valleys tend to deepen and widen as rivers extend their courses
with the help of tributaries. The entire area drained by a river and its
tributaries is known as a catchment or river basin. This process of valley
formation and evolution can be categorized into stages: youth, maturity, and
old age.
1. Youthful Stage: Characterized by steep-sided valleys and energetic, fast-
flowing streams.
2. Mature Stage: Features broader valleys and a more complex, deeply
dissected landscape.
3. Old Age: Exhibits subdued topography within the river's catchment.
These stages and their associated topographical forms can still be observed
in modern landscapes, offering insights into the dynamic history of river
systems and the land they shape.
The Work of the Sea:
The sea, including ocean waves and currents,
plays a significant role in shaping coastlines.
Erosion by waves can create sea cliffs and sea
caves. Deposition along coastlines leads to the
formation of beaches, barrier islands, and
underwater sediments on the ocean floor.
The Work of Wind:
Wind can erode and deposit materials, especially
in arid and windy regions. Wind erosion can
transport sand and silt over long distances,
forming sand dunes. Wind deposition creates
features like sand dunes and loess deposits (fine-
grained wind-blown sediments).
The Work of Ice:
Ice, particularly glaciers, can cause significant
erosion and deposition. Glacial erosion occurs
as glaciers move, carving valleys, fjords, and
cirques. When glaciers melt, they deposit the
material they carried as moraines, outwash
plains, and drumlins.
Other Mass Transport:
This category encompasses various mass
transport mechanisms, including gravity-driven
processes like landslides, rockfalls, and debris
flows. These processes involve the rapid
downslope movement of rocks and sediment
due to gravity, leading to both erosion and
deposition.
Understanding how these natural forces work
in erosion and deposition is essential for
comprehending the development of landscapes,
landforms, and geological features on Earth's
surface. It also has practical implications for
land management and hazard assessment, as
each force has unique effects on the
environment.
QUIZ #3
 QUIZ #3

1. Land areas are continually being reduced and

their shape modified by ___________ and
______________.
 QUIZ #3

2. It breaks down rocks into small

particles by the action of temperature, by
impact from raindrops and by abrasion
from mineral particles carried in the
wind.
 QUIZ #3

3. It describes those mechanical and

chemical changes of the ground that are
directly associated with the activities of
animals and plants.
 QUIZ #3

4. Give one agent of erosion.

 QUIZ #3

5. Removal of material is called

_______________.
 QUIZ #3

6. Term s used to denote perennially

frozen ground.
 QUIZ #3

7. Conditions that exist in sediments with

temperatures below 0C and contain no ice
are described as __________.
 QUIZ #3

8. This occur when the freezing of the

soil results in the formation of layers of
segregated ice at shallow depths.
 QUIZ #3

9. The rate of erosion is greatly

enhanced in times of _________.
 QUIZ #3

10. The combination of oxygen with a

mineral to form oxides and hydroxides or
any other reaction in which the oxidation
number of the oxidized elements is
increased.