Cell Growth and Division

The cell cycle

Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Asexual Reproduction

Lecture 1
 Cell Growth and Cell Cycle
 Introduction
(Division)
Introduction
 Chromatin and Chromosomes
 Human Karyotype
 The Cell Cycle
 Why Cell Divide
 The cell cycle main stages
 Mitosis and Cytokinesis
 Regulation of the Cell Cycle.
 Cell division is uncontrolled in cancer.
 Introduction
The individual sexually reproducing organism—
including humans—begins life as a fertilized egg, or
zygote. Trillions of cell divisions subsequently occur in
a controlled manner to produce a complex,
multicellular human. Once a human individual is fully
grown, cell reproduction is still necessary to repair or
regenerate tissues. For example, new blood and skin
cells are constantly being produced. All multicellular
organisms use cell division for growth, and in most
cases, the maintenance and repair of cells and tissues.
Single-celled organisms use cell division as their
 rrr

 Deoxyribonucleic acid, (DNA) is the molecule that

carries the instructions for all aspects of an
organism’s functions, from growth, to metabolism, to
reproduction. In living organisms, most of the DNA
resides in tightly coiled structures called
chromosomes, located inside the nucleus in each cell
 Genomic DNA
The words “genome” and “genomic” come from the word “gene
 CONNECT TO
 DNA replication As we learned in the
chapter From DNA to Proteins, DNA
synthesis is also called DNA
replication. During this process, the
DNA molecule unzips and each strand
is used as a pattern(desing) for a new
DNA strand
 Chromatin and Chromosomes
1-The chromatin: The DNA is organized in the nucleus to form
chromatin. The chromatin also contains proteins, the main
proteins being histones. The chromatin further condenses to form
the chromosomes. Chromosomes are made up of chromatin, a
complex of DNA and proteins that makes up a eukaryotic
chromosomes. When the cell is not dividing chromatin exists as a
mass of very long thin fibers that are not visible with a light
microscope.
At the time of cell division , the chromatin fibers condense, coil and
the chromosomes become visible as distinct structure.
 The chromosomes looks similar to an “X” in which the left and
right halves are two identical DNA double helixes. One half of a
duplicated chromosome is called a chromatid. Together, the two
identical chromosomes are called sister chromatids.
 Sister chromatids are held together at the centromere
Anormal chromosomes contains a
special node known as a centromere.
 In eukaryotes, the genome comprises several
double-stranded, linear DNA molecules bound with
proteins to form complexes called
 Each species of eukaryote has a characteristic
number of chromosomes in the nuclei of its cells.
Human body cells (somatic cells) have 46
chromosomes. A somatic cell contains two matched
sets of chromosomes, a configuration known as
diploid. The letter n is used to represent a single set
of chromosomes(haploid); therefore a diploid
organism is represented 2n. Human cells that
contain one set of 23 chromosomes are called
gametes, or sex cells; these eggs and sperm are
 Homologous Chromosomes
The matched pairs of chromosomes in a diploid organism are called
homologous chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes are the same
length and have specific nucleotide segments called genes in exactly the
same location, or locus. Genes, the functional units of chromosomes,
determine specific characteristics by coding for specific proteins.
Homologous Chromosomes :Two chromosomes in a pair –
normally one inherited from the mother and one from the
father. For example, the two copies of Chromosome 1 in
a cell would be referred to as homologous chromosomes that
having same structure.
 Human Karyotype
 Every eukaryotic species has a specific number of
chromosomes in the nuclei of its body’s cells. For example,
a typical Diploid human cell contains 46 chromosomes,
namely 23 pairs. Of these 44 form 22 pairs and are auto-
somatic The remaining two are known as sex or
gonosomal chromosomes.
 Human have two different sex chromosomes, X and Y.
 An organism with two X chromosomes is female (22+X)
 An organism with one X and one Y chromosomes is
male(22+X or 22+Y)
Why do cells divide?
 The cell cycle
the cell cycle is sequence of cell growth and division
Usually when cells reach a certain size, they
must either stop growing or divide, Some
cells, such as nerve, skeletal muscle, and red
blood cells, do not normally divide once they
are mature. The activities of growing and
dividing cells can be scribed in terms of the
life cycle of the cell, or the cell cycle.
 Stages of the cell cycle;
 The cell cycle has four main stages. The
cell cycle is the regular type of growth.
DNA duplication, and division that occur
in eukaryotic cells.
 In eukaryotic cells, or cells with a nucleus, the stages of
the cell cycle are divided into two major phases:
interphase and the mitotic (M) phase.
 During interphase, the cell grows and makes a copy of its
DNA.
 During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell separates its DNA
into two sets(Nuclear division) and divides its
cytoplasm(cytokinesis), forming two new cells.
 The division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis
Cell division follows a cycle
INTERPHASE
S
G1 G2
M
INTERPHASE(resting stage)
 interphase is technically not part of
mitosis, but rather encompasses stages G1,
S, and G2 of the cell cycle
 When a cell is between mitotic cycles,
it is in the interphase.
 Interphase lasts from the end of one
cell division to the beginning of the
next.
 1- G1 phase:

During G1 (also called the first gap), a cell carries

out to normal functions. Cells also increase size,
and organelles increase a number
2-S phase (DNA synthesis)- second stage-
 DNA replication (known as the synthesis phase, or S
phase)
 In S phase, the cell synthesizes a complete copy of the
DNA in its nucleus. It also duplicates a microtubule-
organizing structure called the centrosome. The
centrosomes help separate DNA during M phase.
 3-G2 (third gap):
the cell prepares for division
 Cell may grow
 .G2 phase. During the second gap phase,
or G2 phase, the cell grows more, makes
proteins and organelles, and begins to
reorganize its contents in preparation for
mitosis. G2 phase ends when mitosis
begins
 4-MITOSIS(M)-
includes two processes: mitosis and cytokinesis
 Mitosis is the division of the cell nucleus and its contents.
 Mitosis divides a cell’s nucleus in two genetically identical nuclei,
each with own single, full set of DNA(Mitosis is the division of the
cell nucleus and its contents).
 This process occours in all of your body cells.
 Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides into two identical
daughter cells (cell division).
 During mitosis one cell? divides once to form two identical cells.
Structure and number of chromosomes is constant.
 The major purpose of mitosis is for growth and to replace worn out
cells.
 Mitosis is seen both body(somatic) and reproductive cells.
 MITOSIS
During mitosis, the nuclear membrane dissolves, the
duplicated DNA condenses around protein and separates,
and two nuclei form, Lastly, Cytokinesis is the process that
divides the cell cytoplasm The result is two daughter cells
that are genetically identical to original cell.
Mitosis and cytokinesis are continuous process, scientists have
divided them into phases to make them easier to understand
and discuss.
The four main phasesof mitosis are
 Prophase (sometimes divided into early prophase and prometaphase)
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
 Prophase
 The chromosomes condense into X-shaped structures
that can be easily seen under a microscope.
 The chromosomes pair up so that both copies of
chromosome 1 are together, both copies of
chromosome 2 are together, and so on.
 At the end of prophase the membrane around the
nucleus in the cell dissolves away releasing the
chromosomes.
 The mitotic spindle, consisting of the microtubules and
other proteins, extends across the cell between the
centrioles as they move to opposite poles of the cell
Summary of prophase
 METAPHASE
 The chromosomes line up neatly end-to-end along
the center (equator) of the cell.
 The centrioles are now at opposite poles
of the cell with the mitotic spindle fibers
extending from them.
 The mitotic spindle fibers attach to each
of the sister chromatids
 ANAPHASE
 During Anaphase, sister chromatids
separate from each other. The spindle
fibers begin to shorten, the sister
chromatids are then pulled away from
each other and toward opposite sides of
the cell.
 TELOPHASE
 At each pole of the cell a full set of
chromosomes gather together. A nuclear
membrane forms around each daugter
nucleus.
 A membrane forms around each set of
chromosomes to create two new nuclei.
 Cytokinesis
 The division of the cytoplasm is called
cytokinesis.
 During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm of the cell is
divided into two parts, each containing one of
the newly formed nuclei and approximately
half of the other contents of the parent cell.
 Cytokinesis may occur at the same time as
mitosis or after mitosis is completed.
 Animal cells Plant cells
form a cleavage form a central
furrow plate

Fig. 12.8
 Regulation of the Cell Cycle.
 Cell cycle regulation is necessary for healthy
growth. Cell growth and division are regulated by
both external factors, such as hormones and growth
factors, and internal factors, such as cyclins( Cyclins are
among the most important core cell cycle regulators. Cyclins are a group of related
proteins) and
kinases(enzymes). When proper
regulation of cell growth is disrupted, a cell may
become cancerous. Cancer cells grow more rapidly
than do normal cells and form clumps called tumors
that may metastasize to other regions of the body.
Cell division is uncontrolled in cancer.

 Cancer is the common name for a class of

diseases characterized by uncontrolled
cell division.
 Cancer is basically a disease of uncontrolled cell division. Its
development and progression are usually linked to a series of changes
in the activity of cell cycle regulators. For example, inhibitors of the
cell cycle keep cells from dividing when conditions aren’t right, so
too little activity of these inhibitors can promote cancer. Similarly,
positive regulators of cell division can lead to cancer if they are too
active. In most cases, these changes in activity are due to mutations in
the genes that encode cell cycle regulator proteins.
 Asexual Reproduction
Many organisms reproduce by cell division. Most prokaryotes
reproduce through a process called binary fission, in which a
cell divides into two approximately equal parts. Some
eukaryotes reproduce through mitosis. The offspring that
result from asexual reproduction are genetically identical to
the parent organism, except when mutations occur. Whether
being identical is an advantage or a disadvantage depends on
the environment.
Which one is a prophase?
1 2 3 4
What are these?
Metaphase or telophase?
 Quiz
 When does the number of
chromatids per chromosome change?
 In the G phase
1
 In the S phase

 In the G phase
2
 In the anaphase
 Quiz
 What is the ploidy of a human
somatic cell after the S phase?
 Haploid (one set)
 Diploid (two sets)
 Triploid (three sets)
 Tetraploid (four sets)
 Quiz
 What is the ploidy of a human
somatic cell after the S phase?
 Haploid
 Diploid
 Triploid
 Tetraploid