1.

INTRODUCTION
Fundamental concepts of
computer networks.

BISF & BIT GROUPS

 1.2

1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a
distance. The word data refers to information presented
in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating
and using the data.

Data communications are the exchange of data between

two devices via some form of transmission medium such
as a wire cable or wireless.
1.Delivery → Correct destination
2.Accuracy → Accurate data
3.Timelines → Real-time transmission
4.Jitter → Uneven delay
 1.3

Topics discussed in this section:

Components
Data Representation
Data Flow

Components
Figure 1.1 Five components of data communication

5
1

2 3
4
 1.4

Data Representation
1. Text
2. Numbers
3. Images
4. Audio
5. Video

Data flow

 Simplex

 Half-duplex

 Full-duplex
 1.5

1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer,
or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving
data generated by other nodes on the network.

Topics discussed in this section:

Distributed Processing
Network Criteria (performance, reliability, and security)
Physical Structures ( type of connections and topologies)
Network Models
Categories of Networks ( LAN, MAN and WAN)
Interconnection of Networks: Internet
 1.6

Types of connections
 Point to point
 A dedicated link is provided
between two devices

 Multipoint
 More than two specific devices
share a single link
 1.7

Physical Topology

Tree
 1.8

MESH Topology
• Every device has a dedicated point-to-
point link to every other devices
• Dedicated
• Link carries traffic only between the two
devices it connects
• A fully connected mesh network has n(n-1)/2
physical channels to link n devices
• Every device on the network must have n-1
input/output (I/O) ports
• Advantage
• Less traffic, robust, secure, easy to maintain
• Disadvantage
• Need more resource (cable and ports),
expensive n(n-1)/2 physical duplex links
 1.9

STAR Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller,

usually called a hub.

• No direct traffic and link between devices

• Advantages

• Less expensive

• Easy to install and reconfigure

• Robustness

• Disadvantage

• Single point of failure

 1.10

BUS Topology

• A multipoint topology
• All devices are linked through a backbone cable
• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
• Drop line
• A connection running between the device and the main cable
• Tap
• A connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the
sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core
• Advantage:
• Ease of installation
 Disadvantages:
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation
• Broken or fault of the bus cable stops all transmission
 1.11

RING Topology

• Each device is dedicated point-to-point connection only with the two devices on either
side of it
• A signal is passed along the ring in the direction, from device to device, until it reaches
its destination
• Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater

• Advantages
• Relatively easy to install and reconfigure
• Fault isolation is simplified
• Disadvantage
• Unidirectional traffic
 1.12

Tree Topology
Tree topologies integrate multiple topologies together

Example: Tree topology

integrates multiple star
topologies together onto
a bus

• Advantages:
• Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
• Supported by several hardware and software venders.
• Disadvantages:
• Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
• If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
• More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
 1.13

A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

 1.14

Categories of Networks
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
4. Wide Area Network (WAN)
An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet
 1.15

WANs: a switched WAN and a point-to-point WAN

 1.16

Interconnection of Networks: internet

A heterogeneous network made of four WANs and two LANs
 1.17

1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has changed many aspects of our daily lives.

It has affected the way we do business as well as the way
we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a
communication system that has brought a wealth of
information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
Topics discussed in this section:
A Brief History → ARPANET
•1967 ACM
•1969 UCLA, UCSB, SRI, UoU
•1972 TCP
The Internet Today (ISPs)
 1.18

Hierarchical organization of the Internet

 1.19

1-4 PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

protocols and standards.

Protocol is synonymous with rule.

Standards are agreed-upon rules.

Topics discussed in this section:

Protocols
Standards
Standards Organizations
Internet Standards
 1.20

PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Protocols
•Syntax → format of the data
•Semantics → meaning of each section
•Timing → when data should be sent and how fast.

Standards
•De facto → by fact (not approved as a standard)
•De jure → by Law (approved)
 1.21

PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Standards Organizations
• International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
• International Telecommunication Union - Telecommunication
Standards (ITU-T)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
 1.22

Network Models
OSI Model
 1.23
1-5 LAYERED TASKS

 A network model is a layered architecture

 Task broken into subtasks
 Implemented separately in layers in stack
 Functions need in both systems
 Peer layers communicate

 Protocol:
 A set of rules that governs data communication
 It represents an agreement between the communicating
devices
 1.24

Tasks involved in sending a letter

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy (services)
 1.25
1-5.1 THE OSI MODEL

Established in 1947, the International

Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide
agreement on international standards.

An ISO is the Open Systems Interconnection

(OSI) model is the standard that covers all
aspects of network communications from
ISO. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
 1.26

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation
 1.27

Layered Architecture
Seven layers of the OSI model
Layers

Layer 7. Application

Layer 6. Presentation

Receiver
Layer 5. Session
Sender
Layer 4. Transport

Layer 3. Network

Layer 2. Data Link

Layer 1. Physical
 1.28

Layered Architecture
 A layered model
 Each layer performs a subset of the required
communication functions
 Each layer relies on the next lower layer to
perform more primitive functions
 Each layer provides services to the next higher
layer
 Changes in one layer should not require changes
in other layers
 The processes on each machine at a given layer
are called peer-to-peer process
 1.29

PEER – TO – PEER PROCESS

 Communication must move downward through the layers
on the sending device, over the communication channel,
and upward to the receiving device
 Each layer in the sending device adds its own
information to the message it receives from the layer just
above it and passes the whole package to the layer just
below it
 At the receiving device, the message is unwrapped layer
by layer, with each process receiving and removing the
data meant for it
 1.30

PEER – TO – PEER PROCESS

 The passing of the data and network information down
through the layers of the sending device and backup
through the layers of the receiving device is made
possible by interface between each pair of adjacent
layers
 Interface defines what information and services a layer
must provide for the layer above it.
 1.31

The interaction between layers in the OSI model

 1.32

An exchange using the OSI model

 1.33
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

CONTENT
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
 1.34

Physical Layer
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

 Function
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and media
 Representation of bits
 Data rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Line configuration (point-to-point or multipoint)
 Physical topology (mesh, star, ring or bus)
 Transmission mode ( simplex, half-duplex or duplex)
 1.35

Physical layer
 1.36

Data Link Layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.

 Function
 Framing
 Physical addressing
 Flow control
 Error control
 Access control
 1.37

Data link layer

 1.38

Hop-to-hop delivery
 1.39

Example 1
In following Figure a node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node
with physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link. At the
data link level this frame contains physical addresses in the header. These
are the only addresses needed. The rest of the header contains other
information needed at this level. The trailer usually contains extra bits
needed for error detection
 1.40

Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

 Source-to-destination delivery
 Responsible from the delivery of packets from the
original source to the final destination
 Functions
 Logical addressing

 routing
 1.41

Network layer
 1.42

Source-to-destination delivery
 1.43

Example 2
We want to send data from a
node with network address A and
physical address 10, located on
one LAN, to a node with a
network address P and physical
address 95, located on another
LAN. Because the two devices are
located on different networks, we
cannot use physical addresses
only; the physical addresses only
have local influence. What we
need here are universal addresses
that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical)
addresses have this characteristic.
 1.44

Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.

 Process-to- process delivery

 Functions
 Port addressing
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Connection control ( Connection-oriented or connection-less)
 Flow control
 Error control
 1.45

Transport layer

Segmentation and reassembly

 1.46

Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

 1.47

Example 3
Data coming from the
upper layers have port
addresses j and k (j is the
address of the sending
process, and k is the
address of the receiving
process). Since the data size
is larger than the network
layer can handle, the data
are split into two packets,
each packet retaining the
port addresses (j and k).
Then in the network layer,
network addresses (A and
P) are added to each
packet.
 1.48

Session Layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.

 It establishes, maintains and synchronize the

interaction between communicating system
 Function
 Dialog control
 Synchronization (checkpoints)
 1.49

Session layer

Synchronization
 1.50

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.

 Concerned with the syntax and semantics of the

information exchanged between two system
 Functions
 Translation ( EBCDIC-coded text file  ASCII-coded
file)

 Encryption and Decryption

 Compression
 1.51

Presentation layer
 1.52

Application Layer
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.

 Functions
 Network virtual terminal (Remote log-in)

 File transfer and access

 Mail services

 Directory services (Distributed Database)

 Accessing the World Wide Web

 1.53

Application layer
 1.54

Summary of layers
 1.55

Summary of layers

OSI Model
Data
Layer Function
unit

User 7. Application Network process to application

support Data 6. Presentation Data representation and encryption
layers
5. Session Inter-host communication
Sender

Receiver
User
Segment 4. Transport End-to-end connections and reliability
Network
Path determination and logical
Packet 3. Network
Network addressing
support Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers
Bit 1. Physical Media, signal and binary transmission
 1.56

Network Models
Lecture 3

TCP/IP Model
 1.57
1-5.2 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not

exactly match those in the OSI model. The
original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as
having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application. However, when
TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers:
physical, data link, network, transport, and
application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
 1.58

TCP/IP and OSI model

TCP/IP Model
OSI Model
 1.59

Internet Layer

TCP/IP support the Internet Protocol IP ( unreliable).

IP is a host-to-host protocol.
Supporting protocols:
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
• Internet Control Massage Protocol (ICMP)
• Internet Group Massage Protocol (IGMP)
 1.60

Transport Layer

Process-to-process protocol.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
 1.61
1-6 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an

internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
 1.62

Addresses in TCP/IP
 1.63

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

 1.64

Physical Address

Physical addresses are imprinted on the

NIC. Most local-area networks (Ethernet)
use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written
as 12 hexadecimal digits; every byte (2
hexadecimal digits) is separated by a colon.

Example:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical
address.
Physical Address
1.65

• known also as the MAC address

• Is the address of a node as defined by its
LAN or WAN
• It is included in the frame used by data link
layer
The physical addresses in the datagram may change
from hop to hop.
Logical Address
1.66

 IP addresses are necessary for universal

communications that are independent of physical
network.
 No two host address on the internet can have the
same IP address
 IP addresses in the Internet are 32-bit address that
uniquely define a host.

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
 1.67

Port addresses

Port address is a 16-bit address represented by one decimal

number ranged from (0-65535) to choose a process among
multiple processes on the destination host.
Destination port number is needed for delivery.
Source port number is needed for receiving a reply as an
acknowledgments.

In TCP/IP , a 16-bit port address represented

as one single number. Example: 753

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.
 1.68

Port addresses
Specific addresses
1.69

E-mail address (user1@kcau.ac,ke)

Universal Resource Locator (URL) (www.kcau.ac.ke)

The Domain Name System (DNS) translates human-friendly

computer hostnames ( URL) into IP addresses. For example,
www.example.com is translated to 208.77.188.166