CH 4af20 1570 Prokaryotes

MICROBIOLOGY
4a
Functional
Anatomy of
Prokaryotic Cells
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Two Major Cell Types
 There are two major cell types:
 Prokaryotic cells
 Comes from the Greek words for “before” + “nucleus”
 Bacteria and Archaea
 Eukaryotic cells
 Comes from the Greek words for “true” + “nucleus”
 All organisms in the Domain Eukarya: protista, fungi,
plants and animals

Prokaryote Eukaryote
 One circular chromosome,  Chromosomes enclosed in
not in a membrane nuclear membrane
 No organelles  Organelles
 Peptidoglycan in cell walls  Polysaccharide cell walls

Bacteria not Archea
 Binary fission  Mitosis for cell division
 Generally smaller than  Generally larger than

Eukaryotic cells Prokaryotic cells

Relative size of a bacterial cell compared to other cells including
viruses.
Fig. 4.25
Copyright © 2006The
Pearsondimension ofasbacteria
Education, Inc., publishing Benjamin Cummings
Basic Shapes of Bacteria

Prokaryotic Cell Arrangements

Prokaryotic Cells: Arrangement
 Several factors affect

the grouping pattern:
 Whether or not the

cells adhere to each
other when they
divide
 What plane the cells

divide in
 Review this figure

Prokaryotic Cell: Basic Shapes
 Shapes of cells (plural forms in parentheses)
 Bacillus (i) – rod shaped
 Coccus (i) – spherical
 Coccobacillus (i) – very short bacillus
 Spirillium (i) – spiral shaped
 Spirochete – spiral shaped, flexible cell wall
 Vibrio – comma-shaped
Know these terms
Prokaryotic Cells: Arrangement Patterns
 Know these terms:
 Diplo-
 Strepto-
 Staphylo-
 Tetrad
 Sarcina
 Palasade – picket fence arrangement
Know these terms

Prokaryotic Glycocalyx -- Slime layer vs. Capsule

Prokaryotic Cells: Glycocalyx
 Glycocalyx -outside the cell wall (c.w.)
 Secreted by the cell
 Usually sticky: allows the cells to attach to surfaces in their

environment
 Made of polysaccharide or polypeptide
 Two types:
 A capsule is neatly organized and firmly attached to the c.w.
 A slime layer is unorganized and loosely attached to the c.w.

Prokaryotic Cells: Glycocalyx
 Capsules are important in
disease-causing bacteria
because they help protect
the bacterial cell from being
phagocytized (engulfed) by
the host’s immune cells
 Example: Pneumonia
caused by Streptococcus
pneumoniae and Klebsiella
pneumoniae
Pearson Pub.
 Unencapsulated strains of
these organisms do not
cause pneumonia and are
engulfed by immune cells
Prokaryotic Capsule helps cell avoid
phagocytosis
The macrophage can’t

attach to the slippery
capsule easily. Makes
phagocytosis more difficult.
 http://eng.thesaurus.rusnano.com/wiki/article2025

Prokaryotic Cells: Function of Glycocalyx
 Capsules and slime layers made of extracellular
polysaccharide (EPS) allow cells to attach to surfaces
 Bacteria can attach to teeth and some lead to the formation of dental
caries: Example – Streptococcus mutans
 Bacteria can attach to other surfaces such as medical implants,

catheters, damaged heart valves and water pipes
 Bacteria growing in a layer on a surface are referred to as a biofilms
 The role of biofilms in disease is a focus of research right now

because if affects the course of disease.

16
Prokaryotic Cells: Function of Glycocalyx
 Development of a biofilm
 Note that bacteria are

producing slime layer
 Usually a mix of bacteria
 Slime layers are much more

organized than they appear
 Cells communicate with

chemical messengers
 Quorum sensing – each cell

produces some messenger
chemical – when the
concentration from all cells is
high enough, all cells respond
with metabolic changes
Prokaroytic Cells: Flagella
 Flagellum is a whip-like
structure which propels the cell
 Anchored in the cell wall but

extends outside the cell
 Flagellum structure
 Filament – hollow whip-like
portion made of special
proteins
 Hook – bent portion that
holds the flagellum at an
angle
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4.8a
Prokaryotic Cells: Flagella
 Flagellum structure
 Basal body – part of flagellum
that is embedded in the cell
wall and plasma membrane
 Movement is driven by the basal

body
 Attached to the cell wall and

plasma membrane
 Central rod extends from the

hook through sets of rings that
are embedded in the cell wall
and membrane
 ATP required
Prokaryotic Cells: Motile Cells
 Movement:
 Rotate flagella in a 360 degree movement
 The rotation of the flagella drives the cell forward
 Can change the direction of rotation which changes

direction of movement
 Taxis possible – movement toward or away from a

stimulus such as light or food

Prokaryotic Cells: Motile Cells
Run and tumble pattern of

movement
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4.9
Prokaryotic cells: movement
 YouTube video of bacterial motility
 https://youtu.be/4hexn-DtSt4

Flagella - Arrangement
Flagella all over cell Single flagella at one Tuft of flagella at Flagella at
end one end both ends
Prokaryotic Cells: Fimbriae and Pili
 Fimbriae and Pili

 Shorter, thinner and simpler
than flagella
 Composed of protein
subunits
 Fimbriae allow attachment to

surfaces
 Pili are used to transfer DNA

from one cell to another
 Process called conjugation
Prokaryotic Cells: Pili
 Conjugation
 Conjugation is one way of

transferring antibiotic
resistance from cell to cell
 Pili connect cells for DNA

transfer

Prokaryotic Cell Wall
 Cell Wall –
 Gives bacterial cell its

shape
 Prevents osmotic lysis

(rupture)
 Flagellum anchor
 Made of peptidoglycan
(in bacteria)
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4.6a–b
Prokaryotic Cells: Cell Wall
 Wall made of peptioglycan
 Polymer of disaccharide units

 N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid
(NAM) –Just know the abbreviations
 Linked by polypeptides
 Structure of peptioglycan
 Chains of alternating NAM and NAG molecules
 NAM-NAG chains have short side chains of amino acids
(peptides)
 The peptide chains connect the NAM-NAG chains
together
 Peptidoglycan
 peptido – refers to the peptide side chains (chains of

amino acids)
 glycan – refers to the chains of alternating NAM and

NAG; NAM and NAG are a type of glycan
(polysacchariade)
 Visualize this network as layers and layers

of plastic, net bags like the ones that onions
come in. The layers are attached by peptide
chains

Prokaryotic cells: Compare Gram positive and
Gram negative cell walls
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4.13b–c
Gram-Positive Cell Walls
 Gram positive cell walls have
a thick layer of peptidoglycan
(p.g.) outside the cell
membrane
 P.g. layer contains other

components
 Teichoic acids
 Polysaccharides
 Both of these contribute to
making the c.w. unique for
a strain of bacteria
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4.13b
Gram-Positive Cell Walls
 Acid-fast bacteria have a c.w. that is more like the Gram
positive cells than the Gram negative cells
 Layer of peptidoglycan outside the cell membrane
 Layer of mycolic acid, a waxy lipid (fat) occurs outside

the p.g.
 60% of the c.w. is mycolic acid
 Example: Mycobacterium tuberculosis - the mycolic acid

protects the bacterium from drying out; it can survive longer
outside the body

Gram-Negative Cell Walls
 Gram negative cell has several layers outside the plasma
membrane
 Immediately outside the membrane is the periplasmic
space (periplasm)
 Thin layer of p.g. located in the periplasmic space
 Outer membrane

Gram-Negative Outer Membrane
 Outer membrane
 Basic structure is a phospholipid bilayer similar to the
plasma membrane
 Lipopolysaccharide components
 Proteins embedded

 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has two parts:
 O polysaccharide functions as ID for cell
 Lipid A – endotoxin (poison)
 Causes fever, nausea, vomiting and shock in infected
people
 Very heat resistant component

Lipopolysaccharide – Contains Lipid A
(endotoxin)
Brock Biology of Microorganisms, Madigan and Martinko, Pearson Pub.

36
 Porin proteins – form channels in the outer membrane to allow transport
of selected substances into the cell
 Because Gram negative cells have a thin layer of p.g. they are more
likely to be mechanically broken
 Outer membrane protects cell from some antibiotics, enzymes and

detergents

Gram-Positive Gram-Negative
Cell Walls Cell Walls
 Thick peptidoglycan  Thin peptidoglycan
 Teichoic acids  No teichoic acids
 In acid-fast cells, contains  Outer membrane

mycolic acid
Know these differences!

Damage to Prokaryotic Cell Walls
 Lysozyme – enzyme found in tears and other body fluids
 Digests disaccharide in peptidoglycan
 More active against Gram positives because they have
thick layer of p.g. and no outer membrane
 Penicillin inhibits peptide bridges in peptidoglycan

 Affects growing cells that are making new p.g.
 Does not affect p.g. that is already made
 More active against Gram positive cells because Gram
negatives protected by outer membrane
 Synthetic penicillins are active against both Gram pos.
and Gram neg.

Prokaryotic Cells: Domain Archaea
 Domain Archaea
 Wall-less or
 Walls of pseudomurein which is similar to peptidoglycan
 No peptidoglycan

Archaeal cell walls
• Archaeal cell walls do not have
peptidoglycan found in the bacteria.
• May have cell walls with

polysaccharide, protein, or
glycoprotein. May have compounds
similar to pepditoglycan.
• Some only have an S-layer and no

wall
• S-layer is a 2-dimensional layer of

protein on the surface of the cell
Albers et al. Nature Reviews Microbiology advance online

publication;
published online 06 June 2006 | doi:10.1038/nrmicro1440
Examples of Archaeal cell walls
Do not need to
know these
structures
http://quizlet.com/26641497/microbiology-chapter-4-archaea-flash-cards/
Prokaryotic Cells: Plasma Membrane
Gram negative cell
Plasma membrane = cell membrane = cytoplasmic membrane
 Plasma membrane (p.m.)
 7-9 nm thick
 Surrounds the cytoplasm (fluid and contents of the cell)
 Phospholipid bilayer
 Proteins embedded
 Phospholipid bilayer –
 Phospholipid molecules
have a globular end and
two “tails”
 Globular end is polar

(has a charge) and is
hydrophilic (attracted to
water)
 Tails are nonpolar (not

charged) and are
hydrophobic (repelled by
water)
 Phospholipid bilayer –
 The phospholipid
molecules arrange
themselves in water with
the tails facing in and the
globular heads facing out
 This forms a bilayer

 Plasma membrane has proteins
embedded in it
 Peripheral proteins –
 On surfaces
 Example – enzymes
 Integral proteins –
 Involved in transport;
extend through membrane

Fluid Mosaic Model
 Membrane is as viscous as olive oil.
 Proteins move to function.
 Phospholipids rotate
and move laterally.
 Selectively permeable - allows passage of some
molecules
 Water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and simple sugars pass
through
 Substances soluble in lipids may pass through
 Large molecules cannot pass through
 Enzymes for ATP production located in p.m.
Selectively permeable = Semi-permeable

 Plasma membranes are made of phospholipids – anything
that disrupts the phospholipids will damage membrane
 Detergents “dissolve” lipids (Think of washing dishes –

we use detergents to remove the fats; fats are a type of
lipid)
 Damage to the membrane by alcohols, quaternary

ammonium (detergents), and polymyxin antibiotics
causes leakage of cell contents.

Movement Across Membranes
 Concepts:
 Concentration gradient –
 Refers to situation when there is a greater
concentration of a substance on one side of the
membrane
 Substances tend to move from the higher
concentration to the lower concentration; this is called
“down the gradient”
 Movement across the plasma membrane is either-

 Passive – does not require energy such as ATP
 Active – requires energy such as ATP

Passive Transport

Movement Across
Membranes
 Passive Processes
 Simple diffusion:
 Movement of a solute from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration.
 When the concentration is evenly distributed

there is equilibrium
 Only a few small molecules can diffuse across

the p.m.: water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and
some small sugars
 No energy or proteins required

 Passive Processes, cont.
 Facilitated diffusion:
 Requires a transporter protein (may be called a
permease) in the p.m.
 The protein carries the compound across the p.m.
 Compound carried from high concentration to low
concentration
(down the gradient)
 No energy required

 Osmosis: The movement of

water across a selectively
permeable membrane from an
area of high water concentration
to an area of lower water.
 Osmotic pressure: The

pressure needed to stop the
movement of water across the
membrane.
 Osmosis
 The solution surrounding a cell is described with the following
terms:
 Isotonic –same concentration of dissolved compounds (solute) as in
the cell – cell does not gain or lose water
 Hypotonic – Less solute in the surrounding water – water enters cell
 Hypertonic – More solute in the surrounding water – water leaves
cell
Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 4.18c–e
 When is it important to have an isotonic solution?
 Solutions that are used to bathe tissue or that are used

for IV’s should be isotonic.
 Isotonic solutions will not “draw” water out of the cells or

“force” extra water into the cells
 Isotonic saline solution (sometimes just called saline) is

a 0.9% solution of NaCl (sodium chloride - table salt)
 Isotonic saline solution is used in many medical

applications

Example of the active transport carrier, group translocation, and
endocytosis processes.
 Active Processes
 Active Transport –
 Requires energy
 Requires a transport protein
 Moves compounds against the gradient – lower
concentration to higher concentration
 Group Translocaton –
 Requires energy
 Requires a transport protein
 Moves compounds against the gradient – lower
concentration to higher concentration
 And compound is changed when transported
across the membrane
Cytoplasm
 Cytoplasm - substance
inside the plasma
membrane.
 80% water
 Remaining materials:
proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, and inorganic ions
 Structures found in the

cytoplasm: nucleod,
ribosomes, and other
inclusions
Nuclear Material - Nucleoid
 Nuclear area - nucleoid
 Cell has single chromosome
 Chromosome is circular
 Chromosome is much longer

than the cell when it is
unwound; takes up about
10% of the cell’s volume
 Takes complicated folding

and twisting to fit
chromosome into the cell
 Attached to p.m. at least at

one point
• Bacteria have large
circular
chromosomes that
must be packaged
into the cell
• Cell needs to be able

to replicate the DNA
and use it to make
protein
• Wound around
proteins for
organization
http://www.visualphotos.com/image/1x6056777/
coloured_tem_of_dna_from_e_coli_bacterium
Nuclear Material - Plasmids
 Plasmids – small circular pieces of DNA
 Less than 5% size of chromosome
 Can be replicated to make copies
 Not required for growth and

reproduction
 May carry genes for drug resistance,

toxins, and degradative enzymes
 Can be transferred between other

bacteria (certain species) by
conjugation

Nuclear Material - Plasmids
 Conjugation
 Direct cell to cell contact
 Sex pilus forms in Gram negative cells
 Copy of the plasmid is transferred to recipient cell
 One important way that antibiotic drug resistance is spread
Plasmid = F factor New combination of genes

occurs in cell receiving
plasmid

Prokaryotic cells: Ribosomes
 Ribosome – site of protein
synthesis
Small
dot
 Proteins are used as enzymes in
the cell and for structural parts
of cell
 Ribosome has 2 parts:

 Small subunit = 30s
 Large subunit = 50s
 Each part is made of RNA

and protein
Prokaryotic cells: Ribosomes
 Ribosomes are different in prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic
cells
 Difference between cell types gives opportunity to
develop antibiotics that pinpoint bacteria without
harming human cells
 S = Svedburg units – a method of sizing the subunits
Inclusions
 Metachromatic granules  Phosphate reserves
 (volutin)
 Polysaccharide granules  Energy reserves
 Lipid inclusions  Energy reserves
 Sulfur granules  Energy reserves
 Carboxysomes  Ribulose 1,5-diphosphate

carboxylase for CO2 fixation
 Gas vacuoles  Protein covered cylinders


 Magnetosomes  Iron oxide
(destroys H2O2)

Prokaryotic Cells
Be able to
label the cell
structures.
Know their
functions.

Prokarytoic cells: Endospores
 Endospores (sometimes just called spores)
 Resting cells
 Resistant to desiccation (drying), heat, chemicals and

radiation
 Bacillus & Clostridium are most commonly studied

species but a few other species make spores. These
genera contain pathogens.
 Metabolism of spores nearly suspended
 Very long survival period – some up to thousands of

years
 Medically important spore-formers
 The spore-stage plays a role in the pathogenesis of the
organism
 Bacillus cereus – one cause of food poisoning
 Bacillus anthracis - anthrax
 Clostridium perfringens – gas gangrene and food poisoning
 Clostriditum botulinum - botulism food poisoning
 Clostridium tetani – tetanus
 How do you think the spores play a role in these diseases?

Sporulation:
process of
forming
spores
Do not need to
know individual
steps.

 Germination - Return to vegetative state
 Under favorable condition the spore will germinate

 Break in spores coat
 Absorbs water
 Metabolism resumes
 New cell emerges

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MICROBIOLOGY

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Peptidoglycan in cell walls  Polysaccharide cell walls

 Binary fission  Mitosis for cell division

 Generally smaller than  Generally larger than

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Several factors affect

 Whether or not the

 What plane the cells

 Review this figure

 Bacillus (i) – rod shaped

 Coccus (i) – spherical

 Coccobacillus (i) – very short bacillus

 Spirillium (i) – spiral shaped

 Spirochete – spiral shaped, flexible cell wall

 Palasade – picket fence arrangement

Know these terms

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Secreted by the cell

 Usually sticky: allows the cells to attach to surfaces in their

 Made of polysaccharide or polypeptide

 A slime layer is unorganized and loosely attached to the c.w.

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The macrophage can’t

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Bacteria can attach to other surfaces such as medical implants,

 Bacteria growing in a layer on a surface are referred to as a biofilms

 The role of biofilms in disease is a focus of research right now

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Note that bacteria are

 Usually a mix of bacteria

 Slime layers are much more

 Cells communicate with

 Quorum sensing – each cell

 Anchored in the cell wall but

 Movement is driven by the basal

 Attached to the cell wall and

 Central rod extends from the

 Rotate flagella in a 360 degree movement

 The rotation of the flagella drives the cell forward

 Can change the direction of rotation which changes

 Taxis possible – movement toward or away from a

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Run and tumble pattern of

 YouTube video of bacterial motility

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Fimbriae and Pili

 Fimbriae allow attachment to

 Pili are used to transfer DNA

 Conjugation is one way of

 Pili connect cells for DNA

Copyright © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Gives bacterial cell its

 Prevents osmotic lysis

 Polymer of disaccharide units

 peptido – refers to the peptide side chains (chains of