Chapter – 9 Physical Optics

Optics and its Branches

Optics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of nature,
behaviors and properties of light, along with its interaction with
matter and also with the instruments used to detect it.
Optics is further divided into two branches namely;
(i) Physical Optics
The branch of optics in which we study regarding the nature and
physical properties of light; like interference, diffraction and
polarization is called physical optics.
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In physical optics, we consider the wave nature of light to study the

above properties of light, therefore, physical optics is also known as
wave optics.
(ii) Geometrical Optics
The branch of optics in which we study the basic principles,
governing the image-forming properties of lenses, mirrors, and
other devices that make use of light, is called geometrical optics.
Geometrical optics is based on the ray diagram of light to study and
get information about the images formed by mirrors, lenses etc.
Thus, geometrical optics is also known as ray optics. 2
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Nature of Light (particles or waves)

(i) Ibn – al – Haitham’s Time (945 AD)
The study of nature and properties of light was an active field of
research in the time of Ibn – al – Haitham.
(ii) Newton’s Corpuscular theory of Light (1642 – 1728)
According to Newton’s corpuscular theory light consists of
corpuscles (particles) which shoot out from a luminous body. This
theory could successfully explain the rectilinear propagation,
reflection and refraction like properties of light.

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Newton’s theory dominated the wave theory of light till the discovery
of interference and diffraction light in the beginning of 19th century.
(iii) Huygens's Wave Theory of Light (1629 -1695)
Huygens upheld the view the light was a wave of some sort. Huygens
showed that the rectilinear propagation, reflection and refraction
could be explained by assuming the wave nature of light. Huygens’s
theory was not generally accepted for three main reasons.
(a) Firstly, all the waves known at that time such as sound waves
and water waves traveled through some medium, while light could
travel to us from the sun through vacuum.
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Nature of Light
(b) Secondly, if light were a wave motion, it should bend around
corners and we should be able to see around the corners. The
phenomenon of bending around the corners called diffraction was
not discovered in the Huygens’s time.
(c) Thirdly, at that time Newton was acceptable scientist to the
people, as he was more influential and was belonging to the royal
family.

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Nature of Light
(iv) Thomas Young’s Experiment
Thomas Young, in 1801, demonstrated Young’s double slits
experiment and showed that light can exhibit interference. Since,
interference is a wave property, hence according to Young light is
behaving like a wave.
(v) Fresnel’s Experiment
After Thomas young, several years later, Fresnel experimentally
demonstrated the interference and diffraction of light and was
therefore in favor of wave nature of light. 6
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Nature of Light
(vi) Fraunhofer’s Diffraction Experiment
Fraunhofer also experimentally demonstrated that light can do
diffraction and was thus in favor of wave nature of light.
(vii) Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Theory of Light
According to Maxwell’s EMT an oscillating charge will produce
a changing electric field, which in turn produces a changing
magnetic field. These two changing fields will continue to mutually
produce each other. These fields are mutually perpendicular to
each other and this disturbance propagates through space with
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speed of light.
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Nature of Light
Maxwell, in 1873, proposed that light is also electromagnetic in
nature and associated with both electric and magnetic fields
perpendicular to each other.

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Nature of Light
(viii) Dual Nature of Light
Interference, diffraction and polarization of light reveal the wave
nature of light. On the other hand, photoelectric effect reveals the
particle nature of light. Hence, the above properties of light show
that some times light is behaving like a wave and some times
behaving like a particle. It means that light has a dual nature or
character.

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Wave Front and its Types
Definition: The locus of all the points in a medium having same
phase of vibrations is called a wave front.

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There are two types of wave fronts.
(i) Spherical Wave Fronts
The wave fronts near the source of light are spherical in shape and
are therefore, called spherical wave fronts.
These spherical wave fronts travel outward from the source. In
order to indicate the direction of propagation of wave fronts,
arrows are drawn from the source. The arrows which indicate the
direction of propagation of wave fronts are called rays. These rays
are always perpendicular to the wave fronts as shown in the Fig.
One can thus, specify the motion of a wave either by the use of rays
or by drawing the wave itself. 15
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(ii) Plane Wave Fronts
The wave fronts far away from a source of light are straight in
shape and are therefore, called plane wave fronts.
As the wave front travels away from a source, its curvature
decreases, and at a very large distance a small portion of a
spherical wave front will become nearly plane surface. This
straight portion of a spherical wave front is known plane wave
front.

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Plane wave fonts

Spherical wave fonts

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Huygens's Principle
Huygens’s principle was proposed by Christian Huygens in 1678,
that updated our understanding about light and its characteristics.
This principle tells us that how the wave fronts propagate through
space from point to point. Huygens’s principle model is based on
the following two parts.
(i) First part: This part states that all the points on a wave front
may be considered as the sources for the secondary wavelets.
These secondary wavelets propagate through space in the
forward direction with a speed equal to the speed of the wave
motion. 21
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Huygens's Principle
(ii) Second Part: This part states that a second wave front after
some time may be obtained by drawing a plane tangential to the
secondary wavelets.
Similarly, a third wave front after some time may be obtained by
drawing a plane tangential to the tertiary wavelets. A fourth wave
front after some time may be obtained by drawing a plane
tangential to the quaternary wavelets and so on. In this way, wave
fronts are propagating through space.

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Huygens's Principle

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Huygens's Principle

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Coherent and Incoherent Sources of Light
(i) Coherent Sources
Two sources of light are said to be coherent, if the waves emitting
from them have equal frequencies, wavelengths, comparable
amplitudes and a constant phase relationship. A source of laser
light is an example of coherent source.
(ii) Incoherent Sources
Two sources of light are said to be incoherent, if the waves emitting
from them don’t have equal frequencies, wavelengths, comparable
amplitudes and a constant phase relationship. Sun is an example of
incoherent source of light. 25
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Difference between Coherent and Incoherent Light

Coherent light is that particular light in which all photons
oscillate at the same frequency and their wavelengths are also in
phase. On the other hand, incoherent light is the opposite of this.
The photons of incoherent light oscillate at different frequencies,
and their wave lengths are not in phase with each other. Note that
the photons of incoherent also oscillates in different directions
and therefore, light propagates in all directions. For example,
light emitting from an incandescent bulb and fluorescent bulb
propagates in all directions.
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