Material Processing

Defects
Defects in metallic
materials
• Discontinuities are abrupt change in
homogeneity and uniformity in properties
• Three types
• Inherent discontinuities. It is formed when
the metal is molten.
• Wrought discontinuities, related to
melting and solidification of the original
ingot before it is formed into slabs,
blooms, and billets.
• Inherent cast discontinuities, related to
melting, casting and solidification of
cast articles.
• Processing discontinuities
– Related to various manufacturing
processes.
– During manufacturing process, many sub
surface defects open to surface by
machining, grinding etc.
• Service discontinuities
– Stress, Corrosion, Fatigue, Erosion
– These discontinuities may alter the local
stress distributions, may affect
mechanical and chemical (corrosion)
properties
Types of discontinuities
• Planner
– Creates notch effects, stress raiser.
• Volumetric
– Creates loss of material and cross
sectional area
• Characteristic of discontinuities
– Size
– Sharpness
– Orientation, wrt principal stress
– Location
Primary processes and
related defects
• A casting suitable for working or
remelting is called ingot.
• Ingot is the first product of metal
which can be processed to slabs
or billets, blooms and other cross
sections.
• Typical discontinuities in ingots
are
– Nonmetallic inclusions and
voids
– Porosity and Pipe
– Cracks
• In casting process, the solidification
from liquid metal pouring
temperature to the solid at room
temperature, occurs in three stages:
• Contraction of liquid steel
• Liquid to solid contraction
• Contraction of solid to room
temperature
• Various flaws can be introduced
during these processes of
solidification
• Non-metallic inclusions
– Non-metallic inclusion within molten
metal are caused by impurities in
starting material.
– Are lighter than the molten metal and
rise towards the surface, but some are
trapped within, because they do not
have time to reach on the surface,
before the molten metal above them
harden.
– These inclusion are irregular in shape.
Rolling defects

• The process of plastically deforming the metal by

passing it between rolls, called “rolling”
• The metal is subjected to high compressive stresses
from the squeezing action of the rolls and also shear
tresses on the surface as a result of friction between
rolls and the metal
• The friction force is responsible for drawing the metal
into the rolls.
• Cold rolling, good surface finish, increased
mechanical strength, close control over the
dimension of the product.
• Hot rolling, Hot rolling, above recrystallization
temperature (>720°C for steel).
• Laminations: A large porosity, pipe and
non metallic inclusion in a slab, when
rolled into sheet or plate material
flatten and spread out in all directions,
mainly in the direction of rolling, called
“lamination”.
• Stringers: These are longer and thinner
configuration of non-metallic inclusion,
elongated oxide or sulphide inclusion,
present in the original billet when
rolled into bar stock.
• Seam: Surface cracks or irregularities
on the surface of the ingot when rolled
are stretched out and lengthened,
called “seams”.
• Seams may also be caused by folding
of metal due to improper rolling or the
defect in the roller.
 Welded pipe and Tubing
defects

• Welded tubing is formed from strip and welded by

hot-forming fusion, or electric resistance welding,
SAW welding.
• Seams: Seams result from lack of fusion at the
longitudinal welding in pipe/tube.
• The seam may appear on the inside or the outside of
the pipe, for faulty welding.
• Lamination: The lamination present in the plate
stock will be carried over in the pipe made out of
that plate stock.
Seamless pipe and
tubing defects
• Made from bar stock by
extrusion or piercing
process.
• The stock is heated to
rolling temperature and a
hole is pierced through it, by
a mandrel with a bullet
shape nose.
• Finally put through sizing
rolls to reduce it to proper
size and roundness.
• Seams: A crack originally present in the
billet will result in seam.
• Gouging: Occasionally, some of the metal
pieces will break up from the inside surface
by friction and adhere to the mandrel,
causing gouging, a rough depression on the
inside surface of the pipe / tube.
• Slug: The metal buildup on the mandrel may
fuse back into the pipe surface, at another
location, forming defect.
Forging
• Forging is the process of working
of metal into a useful shape by
hammering, pressing, rolling and
extrusion.
• Most forging operations are
carried out hot, although certain
metals can be cold forged.
• Two major classes of equipment
are used for forging operations.
• Forging hammer or drop hammer,
delivers rapid impact blows to
the surface of the metal.
• Forging press subjects the metal
to a slow speed compressive
force.
• Forgings have high strength and
ductility and offer greater
resistance to impact and fatigue
loads due to the opportunity of
aligning the grain flow.
• Because of intense working
flaws are seldom found in forging
and components have high
reliability.
• Almost all metals can be forged,
but the metals which has low
yield point can be forged with
ease.
• Materials like Aluminium, Copper
and their alloys, steels, Titanium
and many other also can be
forged.
Forging Processes
• Two broad categories of forging
processes are
– Open Die Forging
– Closed die forging
• Open die forging is carried out
between flat dies or dies of very
simple shape.
• The process is used mostly for
large objects or the number of
parts produced is small.
• It also used to preform the work
piece for closed die forging
• In closed die forging the
work piece is deformed
between two die halves
which carry the impression
of the desired final shape.
• Precision forging with close
dimensional tolerances can
be produced by closed-die
forging.
Forging Discontinuities

• Forging lap:
– A forging lap is a
discontinuity caused by
folding of metal into a thin
plate on the surface of the
forged material.
– It is due to the mismatch in
the mating surfaces of the
two forging dies in closed
die forging.
– It is always open to the
surface
• Forging bursts or cracks:
– It is quite possible to forge
a sound steel ingot and
produce gross axial
cavities in forging by using
an incorrect technique.
– Bursts can occur as a
result of insufficient
soaking time or
temperature prior to
forging.
– They can occur internally
or on the surface.
Extrusion
• Extrusion is a process by
which a block of metal is
reduced in cross section
by forcing it to flow
through a die or orifice
under high pressure.
• Generally it is used to
produce cylindrical bars or
hollow tubes, but shapes
of irregular cross section
may be produced from
more readily extrudable
metals like aluminium.
• Because of large forces required in
extrusion, most metals are extruded hot
under conditions where deformation
resistance of the metal is low.
• Extrusion defects:
– Because of inhomogeneous
deformation in the direct extrusion of
a billet, the centre of the billet moves
faster than the periphery.
– After about two–thirds of the billet is
extruded, the outer surface of the
billet moves towards the centre and
extrudes through the die near the axis
of the rod.
– The oxidised skin of the billet, the flow
of metal through die result in a
“internal pipe”, called extrusion
defect.
• Cracks: If the metal doesnot flow through
the die properly, there can be cracks or
galling in the finished part.
• If the original billet contained crack or
porosity, the discontinuities can show in
the extruded part.
Drawing
• Pulling a metal through a die
by means of tensile force
applied on the exit side of
the die.
• Plastic flow is caused by the
compressive force which
arises from the reaction of
the metal with the die
Casting Techniques
• Casting is a product
obtained by pouring the
molten metal in a cavity
called mould and allowed
to solidify to get the
desired shape and size.
• A pattern is a form made of
wood, metal or other
suitable material, such as
wax, polystyrene or epoxy
resin, around which
molding material is packed
to shape the casting cavity
of a mould.
Casting Processes
• Sand mold casting
• Shell mold casting
• Permanent mold casting
• Centrifugal casting
• Investment casting
• Die casting
Sand Mold casting
• Sand with binder, is
packed regidily about a
pattern, a cavity
corresponding to the
shape of pattern remains.
• Projections called core
prints are given to support
cores.
• Cores are used to produce
cavities that cannot be
produced by direct casting
from pattern.
• Gating and riser are
provided in the mould to
facilitate the flow of
metal.
• Molten metal poured into
this cavity gives the
replica of the pattern, the
casting.
• Green sand moulds are
most widely used of all
sand molds.
• Both ferrous and non-
ferrous are produced by
these molds.
Shell mold casting
• In this process mold is
formed from a mixture of
sand and thermosetting
resin binder, placed against
a heated metal pattern.
• The resin cures, causing
sand grains to adhere to
each other, forming a
sturdy shell that constitute
the half of the mold.
Permanent mold casting
• A metal mold of two or
more parts is used
repeatedly for casting.
• Process is also called
gravity die casting
• Suitable for high volume
of production of simple,
small casting with
uniform wall thickness,
without internal coring.
Centrifugal casting

• Centrifugal Casting: In this

casting process the melt
metal in poured in permanent
mound and the mold is
rotated so that circular
casting is obtained.
Investment casting
• A precise metal pattern die is
used to produce a wax
pattern.
• Ceramic mixed with
thermosetting resin is used to
produce a ceramic mold by
putting the mixture on wax
pattern.
• The pattern, is then melted or
burned out leaving the mold
cavity.
• The mold is baked and metal is
poured.
Die casting
• Die castings are produced by
forcing molten metal under
pressure into metal mold
called dies.
• Die casting is closely related
to permanent mold casting in
that in both processes
reusable metal molds are
used, but metal flow at high
velocity and under pressure.
• It can produce intricate
shapes in mass production
with good surface finish
Casting Defects
• In casting process, the solidification
from liquid metal pouring
temperature to the solid at room
temperature, occurs in three stages:
• Contraction of liquid steel
• Liquid to solid contraction
• Contraction of solid to room
temperature
• Various flaws can be introduced
during these processes of
solidification
• Non-metallic inclusions
– Non-metallic inclusion within molten
metal are caused by impurities in
starting material.
– Are lighter than the molten metal and
rise towards the surface, but some are
trapped within, because they do not
have time to reach on the surface,
before the molten metal above them
harden.
– These inclusion are irregular in shape.
• Porosity
– It is spherical or nearly
spherical shaped and is
caused by the entrapped
gas in molten metal.
• Blow holes
– Blow holes are small
holes on the surface of
the casting and are
caused by the external
gas emanating from the
mould itself.
Shrinkage flaws
• Shrinkage flaws are
cavities formed during
liquid to solid
contraction.
• These flaws are normally
not associated with gas
formation but a high gas
content will increase
their extent.
• Shrinkage flaws may
occur in different forms
Macro shrinkages (piping):
– Liquid solidification and contraction in
the mold will cause the formation of
shrinkage cavities (piping).
– The solidification process starts from
the mold wall and travels towards the
centre of the ingot.
– On solidification, the molten metal
contracts.
– Since the centre of the ingot is last to
cool and solidify, most of the shrinkage
is absorbed in the centre.
– This results in cavity, called “pipe”
– Piping may extend from the top towards
interior of the ingot along axis.
Centre-line shrinkage (filamentary
shrinkage):
– Wherever solidification cannot be
correctly controlled and is not
directional, a coarse form of shrinkage
may occur.
– These flaws may be extensive,
branching, dendritic and interconnected.
– Due to temperature gradients during
solidification, the flaw may extend to
the cast surface.
Microshrinkage:
– Shrinkage cavities may also be
produced on a micro scale.
– During the later stage of solidification,
the channels to liquid metal between the
growing dendrite arms becomes
progressively narrower, and restrict the
supply of liquid metal to the now
isolated pools of liquid.
– The cavities that result are very fine
form and are called “microshrinkage”
– These occur between dendrite arms
(interdendritic) or at grain boundries
(intercrystalline)
• Cold shuts, Misrun or short
run, & Cold Laps
– Molten metal poured over
solidified metal.
– When the metal is poured, it hits
mould too hard and spatters
small drops of metal.
– When these drops of metal hit
higher up on the mould they
stick and solidify
– When the rising molten metal
reaches and covers the
solidified drops of metal, a
crack like discontinuity is
formed.
– It can also be formed by the
lack of fusion between two
intercepting surfaces of molten
metal of different temperature,
strong oxide film on metal
surface.
• Hot tears (shrink cracks)
– It caused by unequal
shrinking of light and
heavy sections of a
casting as the metal
cools.
– Light section, being
smaller solidify faster,
shrink faster, pulling the
heavier section, which
are hotter and not
shrinking as fast towards
them.
– These cracks are
discontinuous and
generally in ragged form
• Cold or stress crack
– These cracks are formed when the
metal is completely solid and well
defined and approximately straight.
– They are the result of large contraction
stresses and are more likely to occur on
more complicated shapes of casting.
– It depends on the chemical composition
of the casting, Carbon >0.3%, Ni,
Cr,V,Mo aggravate the chances, by
forming martensite during cooling cycle.
• Unfused chaplets
– Used to support internal details of
mould, remain unfused.
• Expansion scabs
– Penetration of metal beyond mould
cavity
• Rat rails
– Surface fissures due to bulging and
cracking of mould face, occur on the top
surface of the large, flat casting.
• Surface roughness and Sand adherence
– Pressure head of metal causes its
penetration in the mold surface voids
– Occur in heavy section casting.
• Misplaced core
– Irregular wall thickness
– Caused displacement of core, or
misalignment by rough handling of
mould.
• Erosion scabs
– Rough projection formed on
the surface where sand has
been washed from the mould
wall, resulting in wide spread
inclusion
– Occur due to improper closing
of moulds
Finishing processes and
related defects
• Machining processes
– Turning & Boring
– Drilling
– Milling
– Grinding
• Heat treatment of steels
– Normalizing
– Annealing
– Hardening
– Surface hardening, carburizing,flame
hardening
• Surface finishing
• Cleaning, pickling and passivation
• Coating
• Metallizing
Powder metallurgy
processes
• The art of producing metal powders and
objects shaped from individual, mixed, or
alloyed powders, with or without inclusion
of non metallic constituents, by pressing or
molding objects which may be
simultaneously or subsequently heated to
produce a coherent mass, either without
fusion or with fusion of low melting
constituent only.
Steps in Powder
Metallurgy processes
• Selection of powder and other constituents
• Mixing and blending
• Pressing
• Sintering,
– hot pressing,
– cold pressing
• Deformation
• Heat treatment
– For stabilization
– Homogeneity
– Annealing
– Softening
– Grain refinement
– Improved ductility
– Hardening
– Improved wear resistance
• Machining
• Impregnation
Thank you all