Diagenesis of Sandstone and Carbonates

Effects of digenesis on reservoir quality
-the control of texture on the petrophysics of unconsolidated

sediment ,once burial begins, many changes take place ,most
of which diminish the porosity and permeability ,of a
potential reservoir these changes called diagenesis .
Effects of diagenesis on sandstone reservoirs
- include the destruction of porosity by compaction and
cementation.
The enhancement of porosity by solution.
Regional variations on sandstone reservoir quality
-most sandstone reservoirs have porosities in the range of 10
to 20% . And permeabilities of tens of millidarcies.
Although fluctuations do occur, the porosity and
permeability decrease with depth.
(it’s important to decide the greatest depth at which
commercially viable reservoirs may occur .
-The porosity of a sandstone at a given depth can be determined if the porosity gradient
and primary porosity are known .
D= p-GD
D= porosity at a given depth.
p= primary porosity at the surface.
G= porosity gradient (% /km )
D= burial depth.
The factors controlling porosity gradients
mineralogy
-the more mineralogically mature a sand is ,the better it’s ability to retain it’s porosity .
Ex: chemically unstable volcaniclastic sands tend to lose porosity faster, and the more stable
pure quartz sands tend to have the lowest gradients .
Texture
Texture also affects the gradient : poorly sorted sands which a abundant clay matrix
compact more and lose porosity faster than do clean .
the geothermal and pressure regimes
-geothermal gradients also affects the porosity gradient of sand ,because the rate of a
chemical reaction increases with temperature , the higher the geothermal gradient , the
faster the rate of porosity loss.
-once petroleum enters a trap ,the circulation of
connate water is diminished ,and further cementation
inhibited .
-water wet -sands have lower porosities than petroleum

saturated sands for the same depth.
Porosity loss by cementation
-Diagenetic changes in a sandstone reservoir include
cementation and solution.
-A small mount of cementation is beneficial to a sandstone
reservoir because it prevents sand from being produced
with the oil .
-the presence of sand in the oil not only damages the
reservoir itself but also the production system .
-Extensive cementation is deleterious, however, because it
diminishes porosity and permeability.
-many minerals may grow in the pores of a sandstone but
only three are the major significance: quartz, calcite and
authigenic clays .
Various types of sandstone cement
-silica cement
-calcite cement
-authigenic kaolin crystals within pores
- illite
Quartz
-Quartz is a common cement .it generally grows as
optically continuous overgrowths on detrital quartz
grains .
-The solubility of silica increase with ph , so silica
cements occur where acid fluids have moved through
the pores .
Calcium carbonate
--calcite solubility is the reverse of silica solubility , it decrease
with pH.
-calcite cementation is the result of alkaline fluids moving
through the pores.
is another common cement.

-occurs as calcite crystals which as they grow from pore to pore
may from a poikilitic fabric of crystals enclosing many sand
grains .
-the grains frequently appear to float in the crystals.
-Detailed observation often shows that grain boundaries are
corroded ,suggesting that some replacement has occurred .
Quartz and carbonate cements
-both found in at shallow depths.
-with increasing depth carbonate cements are replaced by
quartz as the zone of metagenesis approaches.
-At the depths where petroleum Is encountered quartz and
carbonate cements commonly occur in sands adjacent to
shales .
Clay
-may be present in a sandstone either as a detrital matrix or
as an authigenic cement.
-clays recrystallize and alter during burial .
-The presence of clay in a reservoir obviously destroys it's
porosity and permeability.
-the mineralogy of clays is very complex but basically there
are three groups to consider these:
The kaolinite,illitic and montmorilloniitic clays , have
different effects on reservoirs and different sources of
formation.
Kaolinite
-generally occurs as well-formed
-blocky crystals within pore spaces .
-this crystal habit diminishes the porosity of the
reservoir but may have only a minor effect on
permeability .
-kaolinite forms and is stable in the presence of
acid solutions
-it occurs as a detrital clay in continental deposits .
-as an authigenic cement in sands that have been
flushed by acidic waters , such as meteoric origin .
Illitic clay
-is quite different from kaolin .
-Authigenic illite grows as fibrous crystals ,which typically occur as furlike jackets
on the detrital grains .
-these structures often bridge over the throat passages between pores in a
tangled mass.
-have a very harmful effect on the permeability of reservoirs.
-illitic clays typically form in alkaline environments .
-they are the dominant detrital clay of most marine sediments and occur as an
authigenic clay in sands through which alkaline connate has moved .
Kaolinite Illite/Smectite
The montmorillonitic or smectite
-formed from the alteration of volcanic glass .
-found in continental or deep marine deposits.
-have the ability to swell in the presence of water .
-reservoirs with montmorillonite are very susceptible to
formation damage if drilled when production begins ,water
displaces the oil ,causing the montmorillonitic clays to expand
and destroy the permeability of the lower part of the
reservoir.
-with increasing burial the kolinites and The montmorillonite
alter to illite.
-the collapse of The montmorillonite being a possible cause of
overpresse and related to the expulsion of petroleum .
Porosity enhancement by solution
-cementation reduces the porosity and permeability of a sand ,solution of cement or
grains can reverse this trend .
-it generally involves the leaching of carbonate cements and grains including
calcite, dolomite, siderite, shell debris, and unstable detrital minerals ,especially
fedspar
-leached porosity in sands is generally associated with kaolin ,which both replaces
feldspar and occurs as an authigenic cement.
-Carbonate is leached out of the sand and the predominance of kaolin indicate that
leaching was caused by acidic solutions.
-there are 2 sources of acidic leaching :epidiagenesis , weathering due to surface
waters and decarboxylation of kerogen .
-meteoric water rich in carbonic and humic acids weathers sandstones and other rocks
At the earth’s surface.
-in many cases kaolinization and leachnig generate solution porosity that is
enhanced by fracturing .

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Effects of digenesis on reservoir quality

-the control of texture on the petrophysics of unconsolidated

-water wet -sands have lower porosities than petroleum

is another common cement.

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