(Lecture - 4) Neuropsychology of Human Behavior

Neuropsychology of Human
Behavior
BY
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: SARIA RAFIQ
The nervous system
 The nervous system is a complex, highly coordinated network of tissues
that communicate via electro chemical signals.
 It is responsible for receiving and processing information in the body and
is divided into two main branches:
 The central nervous system

and
 The peripheral nervous system
Organization of the nervous system
The central nervous system
 The central nervous system receives and processes information from

the senses. The brain and the spinal cord make up the central nervous
system.
 Both organs lie in a fluid called the cerebrospinal fluid, which
cushions and nourishes the brain.
 The blood-brain barrier protects the cerebrospinal fluid by
blocking many drugs and toxins. This barrier is a membrane that lets
some substances from the blood into the brain but keeps out others.
The Central Nervous System
The spinal cord
The spinal cord connects the brain to the rest of the body.
It runs from the brain down to the small of the back and
is responsible for spinal reflexes, which are automatic
behaviors that require no input from the brain.
The spinal cord also sends messages from the brain to
the other parts of the body and from those parts back to
the brain.
The Brain
 The brain controls many functions and sensations, such
as sleep, sexual activity, muscle movement, hunger, thirst,
memory, and the emotions.
 The brain contains more than 10 billion nerve cells.

Billions of other cells help form the soft, jellylike substance
of the brain.
 The Brain cells are known as neurons.

 All the parts of the nervous system except the
brain and the spinal cord belong to the peripheral
nervous system. The peripheral nervous system
has two parts:
The somatic nervous system and
The autonomic nervous system.
The Somatic Nervous System
The somatic nervous system consists of nerves that

connect the central nervous system to voluntary
skeletal muscles and sense organs.
Voluntary skeletal muscles are muscles that help us
to move around.
There are two types of nerves in the somatic
nervous system:
Afferent nerves carry information from the muscles and
sense organs to the central nervous system.
Efferent nerves carry information from the central

nervous system to the muscles and sense organs.
The Autonomic Nervous System
 The autonomic nervous system consists of nerves that connect
the central nervous system to the heart, blood vessels, glands,
and smooth muscles.
 Smooth muscles are involuntary muscles that help organs such
as the stomach and bladder carry out their functions.
 The autonomic nervous system controls all the automatic
functions in the body, including breathing, digestion, sweating,
and heartbeat.
 The autonomic nervous system is divided into the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
 The sympathetic nervous system gets the body ready for
emergency action. It is involved in the fight-or-flight
response, which is the sudden reaction to stressful or
threatening situations.
 The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body to meet
a challenge. It activates the release of hormones so the body
can act quickly.
 The parasympathetic nervous system becomes
active during states of relaxation.
 It helps the body to conserve and store energy. It

slows heartbeat, decreases blood pressure, and
promotes the digestive process
Neurons
 There are two kinds of cells in the nervous system: glial
cells and neurons. Glial cells, which make up the support
structure of the nervous system, perform four functions:
 Provide structural support to the neurons
 Insulate neurons
 Nourish neurons
 Remove waste products
.
 The other cells, neurons, act as the communicators of the
nervous system.
 Neurons receive information, integrate it, and pass it along.
They communicate with one another, with cells in the
sensory organs, and with muscles and glands.
Characteristics of neurons
 Each neuron has the same structure:

Each neuron has a soma, or cell body, which is the central
area of the neuron.
The highly branched fibers that reach out from the neuron
are called dendritic trees. Each branch is called a dendrite.
Dendrites receive information from other neurons or from
sense organs.
 The single long fiber that extends from the neuron is
called an axon. Axons send information to other
neurons, to muscle cells, or to gland cells.
 Some of these axons have a coating called the myelin

sheath. Glial cells produce myelin, which is a fatty
substance. When an axon has a myelin sheath, nerve
impulses travel faster down the axon. Nerve
transmission can be impaired when myelin sheaths
disintegrate.
 At the end of each axon lie bumps called terminal buttons.
Terminal buttons release neurotransmitters, which are
chemicals that can cross over to neighboring neurons and
activate them.
 The junction between an axon of one neuron and the cell

body or dendrite of a neighboring neuron is called a synapse.
Neuron
Axon
Direction of impulse
Structure & Function of Brain
Brain & Behavior
Cerebral Cortex
 The cerebral cortex is the thin layer of the brain

that covers the outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of
the cerebrum.
 The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes that

each have a specific function
Cerebral Cortex
The average human brain weighs about 1,400 grams (3 lb). The brain can be divided down
the middle lengthwise into two halves called the cerebral hemispheres. Each
hemisphere of the cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes …
Although most people have the same patterns of gyri and sulci on the cerebral cortex, no
two brains are exactly alike.
Midbrain & its Function
 The midbrain is an area of the brain which is in the middle

of two other regions: the forebrain and the hindbrain.
 It's the 'supercomputer' of the human body.
 A major function of the midbrain is to aid in movement as
well as visual and auditory processing.
 Controlling Responses to Sight
 Eye Movement
 Pupil Dilation
 Hearing
• The superior and inferior colliculi are two rounded
components located near the top of the midbrain that
play a role in vision and hearing.
Subdivision of the hindbrain
Major Structures of Brain
Neurotransmitter & their
functions
Nerve Signaling
 Neurons signal information by releasing

packets of chemical transmitters from the axon
terminal
 Chemical molecules bind to receptors on the
membrane of adjacent nerve cells
 Binding in turn changes the electrical activity
of the adjacent cell and can trigger an action
potential
 A reuptake process in the axon membrane
takes up excess chemical for reuse
The Synapse & Neurotransmitters
Information from one neuron flows to another
neuron across a synapse. The synapse is a small
gap separating 2 neurons. The synapse consists
of:
a presynaptic ending that contains

neurotransmitters, mitochondria and other cell
organelles,
a postsynaptic ending that contains receptor sites

for neurotransmitters and,
the synaptic cleft: a space between the

presynaptic and postsynaptic endings.
 Abnormal behavior could result from:
 Too much of a specific neurotransmitter in the synapse,
due to excessive synthesis
 Too little of a specific neurotransmitter in the synapse,

due to deficient synthesis
 Too much of a specific neurotransmitter due to inhibited

reuptake of the transmitter
 Too many or too few receptors on the postsynaptic

neuron membrane
 Neurotransmitters relevant to us include:
 Norepinephrine
 Serotonin
 GABA
 Dopamine
 And many others
Endocrine System
 The endocrine system is the collection of glands that produce
hormones that regulate metabolism, growth and development,
tissue function, sexual function, reproduction, sleep, and
mood.
 By regulating the functions of organs in the body, these

glands help to maintain the body’s homeostasis (a constant
body environment).
 Hormones are chemical messengers created by the body.
They transfer information from one set of cells to another
to coordinate the functions of different parts of the body.
 The major glands of the endocrine system are the
hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, pineal
body, and the reproductive organs (ovaries and testes).
 The pancreas is also a part of this system; it has a role in

hormone production as well as in digestion .
Hypothalamus
 The hypothalamus is a part of the brain located superior and
anterior to the brain stem and inferior to the thalamus.
 It serves many different functions in the nervous system,
and is also responsible for the direct control of the endocrine
system through the pituitary gland.
 The hypothalamus contains special cells called
neurosecretory cells—neurons that secrete hormones:
 Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
 Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
 Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
 Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
 Oxytocin
 Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
All of the releasing and inhibiting hormones affect the function of the
anterior pituitary gland.
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates the anterior

pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
GHRH and GHIH work to regulate the release of growth hormone—

GHRH stimulates growth hormone release, GHIH inhibits its
release.
 (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone) GnRH stimulates
the release of follicle stimulating hormone and
luteinizing hormone
 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates

the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

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Neuropsychology of Human

 The central nervous system

 The central nervous system receives and processes information from

 The brain contains more than 10 billion nerve cells.

 The Brain cells are known as neurons.

The somatic nervous system consists of nerves that

Efferent nerves carry information from the central

 It helps the body to conserve and store energy. It

 Each neuron has the same structure:

 Some of these axons have a coating called the myelin

 The junction between an axon of one neuron and the cell

 The cerebral cortex is the thin layer of the brain

 The cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes that

 The midbrain is an area of the brain which is in the middle

 Neurons signal information by releasing

a presynaptic ending that contains

a postsynaptic ending that contains receptor sites

the synaptic cleft: a space between the

 Too little of a specific neurotransmitter in the synapse,

 Too much of a specific neurotransmitter due to inhibited

 Too many or too few receptors on the postsynaptic

 By regulating the functions of organs in the body, these

 The pancreas is also a part of this system; it has a role in

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates the anterior

GHRH and GHIH work to regulate the release of growth hormone—

 Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulates

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