2023 Ada

Standards of Care
in Diabetes—2023
Section 1.
Classification and
Diagnosis of
Diabetes
CLASSIFICATION AND DIAGNOSIS OF DIABETES
Classification
Diabetes can be classified into the following general categories:
1. Type 1 diabetes (due to autoimmune ß-cell destruction, usually leading to absolute
insulin deficiency, including latent autoimmune diabetes of adulthood)
2. Type 2 diabetes (due to a non-autoimmune progressive loss of adequate ß-cell
insulin secretion frequently on the background of insulin resistance and metabolic
syndrome)
3. Specific types of diabetes due to other causes, e.g., monogenic diabetes
syndromes (such as neonatal diabetes and maturity-onset diabetes of the young),
diseases of the exocrine pancreas (such as cystic fibrosis and pancreatitis), and
drug- or chemical-induced diabetes (such as with glucocorticoid use, in the
treatment of HIV/AIDS, or after organ transplantation)
4. Gestational diabetes mellitus (diabetes diagnosed in the second or third| 3trimester
of pregnancy that was not clearly overt diabetes prior to gestation)
Hold for table 2.1
Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: | 4
Standards of Care in Diabetes - 2023. Diabetes Care 2023;46(Suppl. 1):S19-S40

DIAGNOSIS OF DIABETES
Table 2.2
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Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes:
 Adequate carbohydrate intake (at least 150 g/day)

should be assured for 3 days prior to oral glucose
tolerance testing as a screen for diabetes.
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Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes

2.7 Screening for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes with an informal
assessment of risk factors or validated risk calculator should be done in
asymptomatic adults. B
2.8 Testing for prediabetes and/or type 2 diabetes in asymptomatic
people should be considered in adults of any age with overweight or
obesity (BMI ≥25 kg/m2 or ≥23 kg/m2 in Asian American individuals)
who have one or more risk factors (Table 2.3). B
2.9 For all people, screening should begin at age 35 years. B
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Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes (continued)

2.10 If tests are normal, repeat screening recommended at a minimum of
3-year intervals is reasonable, sooner with symptoms or change in
risk (i.e., weight gain). C
2.11 To screen for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes, fasting plasma
glucose, 2-h plasma glucose during 75-g oral glucose tolerance test, and
A1C are each appropriate (Table 2.2 and Table 2.5). B
2.12 When using oral glucose tolerance testing as a screen for diabetes,
adequate carbohydrate intake (at least 150 g/day) should be assured
for 3 days prior to testing. A
2.13 In people with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes, identify and treat
cardiovascular disease risk factors. A
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Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes (continued)

2.14 Risk-based screening for prediabetes and/or type 2 diabetes should
be considered after the onset of puberty or after 10 years of age,
whichever occurs earlier, in children and adolescents with overweight
(BMI ≥85th percentile) or obesity (BMI ≥95th percentile) and who
have one or more risk factors for diabetes. (See Table 2.4 for
evidence grading of risk factors.) B
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diabetes.org/socrisktest

Standards of Care in Diabetes - 2023. Diabetes Care | 13
2023;46(Suppl. 1):S19-S40
Cystic Fibrosis-Related Diabetes

2.16 Annual screening for cystic fibrosis–related diabetes with an oral
glucose tolerance test should begin by age 10 years in all people
with cystic fibrosis not previously diagnosed with cystic fibrosis–
related diabetes . B
2.17 A1C is not recommended as a screening test for cystic fibrosis–
related diabetes. B
2.18 People with cystic fibrosis–related diabetes should be treated
with insulin to attain individualized glycemic goals. A
2.19 Beginning 5 years after the diagnosis of cystic fibrosis–related
diabetes, annual monitoring for complications of diabetes is recommended.
E
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Posttransplantation Diabetes Mellitus

2.20 After organ transplantation, screening for hyperglycemia
should be done. A formal diagnosis of posttransplantation
diabetes mellitus is best made once the individual is stable on an
immunosuppressive regimen and in the absence of an acute
infection. B
2.21 The oral glucose tolerance test is the preferred test to make a
diagnosis of posttransplantation diabetes mellitus. B
2.22 Immunosuppressive regimens shown to provide the best
outcomes for patient and graft survival should be used,
irrespective of posttransplantation diabetes mellitus risk. E
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Monogenic Diabetes Syndromes

2.23 Regardless of current age, all people diagnosed with diabetes in the
first 6 months of life should have immediate genetic testing for
neonatal diabetes. A
2.24 Children and young adults who do not have typical characteristics of
type 1 or type 2 diabetes and who often have a family history of
diabetes in successive generations (suggestive of an autosomal
dominant pattern of inheritance) should have genetic testing for
maturity onset diabetes of the young. A
2.25 In both instances, consultation with a center specializing in diabetes
genetics is recommended to understand the significance of genetic
mutations and how best to approach further evaluation, treatment,
and genetic counseling. E | 16
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The diagnosis of monogenic diabetes should be considered in children and

adults diagnosed with diabetes in early adulthood with the following
findings:
• Diabetes diagnosed within the first 6 months of life (with occasional cases
presenting later, mostly INS and ABCC8 mutations)
• Diabetes without typical features of type 1 or type 2 diabetes (negative
diabetes-associated autoantibodies, no obesity, lacking other metabolic
features, especially with strong family history of diabetes)
• Stable, mild fasting hyperglycemia (100–150 mg/dL [5.5–8.5 mmol/L]),
stable A1C between 5.6% and 7.6% (between 38 and 60 mmol/mol),
especially if no obesity
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Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

2.26a In individuals who are planning pregnancy, screen those with risk
factors B and consider testing all individuals of childbearing
potential for undiagnosed diabetes. E
2.26b Before 15 weeks of gestation, test individuals with risk factors B
and consider testing all individuals E for undiagnosed diabetes at the
first prenatal visit using standard diagnostic criteria if not screened
preconception.
2.26c Individuals of childbearing potential identified as having diabetes
should be treated as such. A
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Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (continued)

2.26d Before 15 weeks of gestation, screen for abnormal glucose
metabolism to identify individuals who are at higher risk of adverse
pregnancy and neonatal outcomes, are more likely to need insulin, and
are at high risk of a later gestational diabetes mellitus diagnosis. B Treatment
may provide some benefit. E
2.26e Screen for early abnormal glucose metabolism using fasting glucose
of 110–125 mg/dL (6.1 mmol/L) or A1C 5.9–6.4% (41–47
mmol/mol). B
 Screen for gestational diabetes mellitus at 24–28 weeks of gestation
in pregnant individuals not previously found to have diabetes or high-
risk abnormal glucose metabolism detected earlier in the current
pregnancy. A | 20
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (continued)

2.28 Screen individuals with gestational diabetes mellitus for
prediabetes or diabetes at 4–12 weeks postpartum, using the 75-g oral
glucose tolerance test and clinically appropriate nonpregnancy
diagnostic criteria. B
2.29 Individuals with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus should
have lifelong screening for the development of diabetes or
prediabetes at least every 3 years. B
 Individuals with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus found to have
prediabetes should receive intensive lifestyle interventions and/or
metformin to prevent diabetes. A
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GDM diagnosis (Table 2.7) can be accomplished with either of two

strategies:
1. The “one-step” 75-g OGTT derived from the IADPSG criteria, or
The older “two-step” approach with a 50-g (nonfasting) screen followed by
a 100-g OGTT for those who screen positive based on the work of Carpenter-
Coustan’s interpretation of the older O’Sullivan and Mahan criteria.
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Section 3.
Prevention or
Delay of Type 2
Diabetes and
Associated
Comorbidities
PREVENTION OR DELAY OF TYPE 2 DIABETES
Lifestyle Behavior Change for Diabetes Prevention

 Refer adults with overweight/obesity at high risk of type 2 diabetes, as
typified by the Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP), to an intensive lifestyle
behavior change program to achieve and maintain a weight reduction of at
least 7% of initial body weight through healthy reduced-calorie diet and
≥150 min/week of moderate intensity physical activity. A
 A variety of eating patterns can be considered to prevent diabetes in
individuals with prediabetes. B
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Lifestyle Behavior Change for Diabetes

Prevention (continued)
3.4 Given the cost-effectiveness of lifestyle behavior modification
programs for diabetes prevention, such diabetes prevention
programs should be offered to adults at high risk of type 2 diabetes. A
Diabetes prevention programs should be covered by third-party
payers, and inconsistencies in access should be addressed.
3.5 Based on patient preference, certified technology-assisted diabetes
prevention programs may be effective in preventing type 2 diabetes
and should be considered. B
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Pharmacologic Interventions
 Metformin therapy for the prevention of type 2 diabetes should be
considered in adults at high risk of type 2 diabetes, as typified by the
Diabetes Prevention Program, especially those aged 25–59 years with
BMI ≥35 kg/m2, higher fasting plasma glucose (e.g., ≥110 mg/dL), and
higher A1C (e.g., ≥6.0%), and in individuals with prior gestational
diabetes mellitus. A
 Long-term use of metformin may be associated with biochemical vitamin
B12 deficiency; consider periodic measurement of vitamin B12 levels in
metformin-treated individuals, especially in those with anemia or
peripheral neuropathy. B
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Prevention of Vascular Disease and Mortality

3.8 Prediabetes is associated with heightened cardiovascular risk;
therefore, screening for and treatment of modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular
disease are suggested. B
3.9 Statin therapy may increase the risk of type 2 diabetes in people at high risk
of developing type 2 diabetes. In such individuals, glucose status should be
monitored regularly and diabetes prevention approaches reinforced. It is not
recommended that statins be discontinued. B
3.10 In people with a history of stroke and evidence of insulin resistance and
prediabetes, pioglitazone may be considered to lower the risk of stroke or
myocardial infarction. However, this benefit needs to be balanced with the
increased risk of weight gain, edema, and fracture. A Lower doses may
mitigate the risk of adverse effects. C
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Patient-Centered Care Goals

3.11 In adults with overweight/obesity at high risk of type 2 diabetes, care goals
should include weight loss or prevention of weight gain, minimizing the progression of
hyperglycemia, and attention to cardiovascular risk and associated comorbidities. B
3.12 Pharmacotherapy (e.g., for weight management, minimizing the progression of
hyperglycemia, cardiovascular risk reduction) may be considered to support person-centered
care goals. B
 More intensive preventive approaches should be considered in individuals who are at
particularly high risk of progression to diabetes, including individuals with BMI ≥35
kg/m2, those at higher glucose levels (e.g., fasting plasma glucose 110–125 mg/dL, 2-h
postchallenge glucose 173–199 mg/dL, A1C ≥6.0%), and individuals with a history of
gestational diabetes mellitus. A
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Section 4.
Comprehensive
Medical
Evaluation and
Assessment of
Comorbidities
COMPREHENSIVE MEDICAL EVALUATION AND ASSESSMENT OF COMORBIDITIES
Patient-centered Collaborative Care

4.1 A person-centered communication style that uses person-centered,
culturally sensitive, and strength-based language and active
listening; elicits individual preferences and beliefs; and assesses
literacy, numeracy, and potential barriers to care should be used to
optimize health outcomes and health-related quality of life. B
4.2 People with diabetes can benefit from a coordinated
multidisciplinary team that may include and is not limited to diabetes care
and education specialists, primary care and subspecialty clinicians, nurses,
registered dietitian nutritionists, exercise specialists, pharmacists, dentists,
podiatrists, and mental health professionals. E
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Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities:

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Use of Empowering Language

Five key consensus recommendations for language use:
1. Use language that is neutral, nonjudgmental, and based on facts,
actions, or physiology/biology.
2. Use language that is free from stigma.
3. Use language that is strength based, respectful, and inclusive and
that imparts hope.
4. Use language that fosters collaboration between people with
diabetes and health care professionals.
5. Use language that is person centered (e.g., “person with diabetes” is
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preferred over “diabetic”).

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation

 A complete medical evaluation should be performed at the initial visit to:
• Confirm the diagnosis and classify diabetes. A
• Evaluate for diabetes complications, potential comorbid conditions, and overall
health. A
• Review previous treatment and risk factor management in people with established
diabetes. A
• Begin patient engagement with the person with diabetes in the formulation of a care
management plan including initial goals of care. A
• Develop a plan for continuing care. A
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Comprehensive Medical Evaluation

(continued)
4.4 A follow-up visit should include most components of the initial
comprehensive medical evaluation (see Table 4.1). A
4.5 Ongoing management should be guided by the assessment of overall health
status, diabetes complications, cardiovascular risk, hypoglycemia risk, and shared
decision-making to set therapeutic goals. B
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Immunizations
4.6 Provide routinely recommended vaccinations for children and adults with
diabetes as indicated by age (see Table 4.5 for highly recommended
vaccinations for adults with diabetes). A
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Immunizations
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Immunizations
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Immunizations
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Autoimmune Diseases
4.7 People with type 1 diabetes should be screened for autoimmune
thyroid disease soon after diagnosis and periodically thereafter. B
4.8 Adults with type 1 diabetes should be screened for celiac
disease in the presence of gastrointestinal symptoms, signs, laboratory
manifestations, or clinical suspicion suggestive of celiac disease. B
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Cognitive Impairment/Dementia
4.9 In the presence of cognitive impairment, diabetes treatment plans should
be simplified as much as possible and tailored to minimize the risk of
hypoglycemia. B
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Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

4.10 People with type 2 diabetes or prediabetes with cardiometabolic risk
factors, who have either elevated liver enzymes (ALT) or fatty liver on
imaging or ultrasound, should be evaluated for presence of nonalcoholic
steatohepatitis and liver fibrosis. C
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Diabetes and COVID-19

4.11 Health care professionals should help people with diabetes aim to
achieve individualized targeted glycemic control to reduce the risk
of macrovascular and microvascular risk as well as reduce the risk
of COVID-19 and its complications. B
4.12 As we move into the recovery phase, diabetes health care services
and practitioners should address the impact of the pandemic in
higher-risk groups, including ethnic minority, deprived, and older
populations. B
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Diabetes and COVID-19 (continued)

4.13 People who have been infected with SARS-CoV-2 should be followed up in
the longer term to assess for complications and symptoms of long COVID . E
4.14 People with new-onset diabetes need to be followed up regularly in
routine clinical practice to determine if diabetes is transient. B
4.15 Health care professionals need to carefully monitor people with diabetes
for diabetic ketoacidosis during the COVID-19 pandemic. C
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Diabetes and COVID-19 (continued)

4.16 People with diabetes and their families/caregivers should be monitored for
psychological well-being and offered support or referrals as needed,
including mental/behavioral health care, self-management education and
support, and resources to address related risk factors . E
4.17 Health care systems need to ensure that the vulnerable populations are not
disproportionately disadvantaged by use of technological methods of
consultations. E
4.18 There is no clear indication to change prescribing of glucose-lowering
therapies in people with diabetes infected by the SARS-CoV-2 virus . B
4.19 People with diabetes should be prioritized and offered SARSCoV-2
vaccines. B
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Section 5.
Facilitating
Positive
Behaviors and
Well-being to
Improve Health
Outcomes
FACILITATING POSITIVE HEALTH BEHAVIORS AND WELL-BEING TO IMPROVE HEALTH
OUTCOMES
Diabetes Self-management Education and

Support
5.1 All people with diabetes should participate in diabetes self-management
education and support to facilitate the knowledge, decision-making, and skills
mastery for diabetes self-care. A
5.2 There are four critical times to evaluate the need for diabetes self-
management education and support to promote skills acquisition to aid
treatment plan implementation, medical nutrition therapy, and well-being: at
diagnosis, annually and/or when not meeting treatment targets, when complicating
factors develop (medical, physical, psychosocial), and when transitions in
life and care occur. E
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OUTCOMES

Support (continued)
5.3 Clinical outcomes, health status, and well-being are key goals of diabetes
self-management education and support that should be measured as part
of routine care. C
5.4 Diabetes self-management education and support should be person-
centered, may be offered in group or individual settings, and should be
communicated with the entire diabetes care team. A
5.5 Digital coaching and digital self-management interventions can be
effective methods to deliver diabetes self-management education and
support. B
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OUTCOMES

Support (continued)
5.6 Reimbursement by third-party payers is recommended C because diabetes
self-management education and support can improve outcomes and reduce
costs. B
5.7 Identify and address barriers to diabetes self-management education and
support that exist at the health system, payer, health care professional, and
individual levels. E
5.8 Include social determinants of health of the target population in guiding
design and delivery of diabetes self-management education and support C
with the ultimate goal of health equity across all populations.
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OUTCOMES

Support (continued)
5.9 Consider addressing barriers to diabetes self-management education and
support access through telehealth delivery of care B and other digital health
solutions. C
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OUTCOMES

Support
There are four critical time points when the need for DSMES should be evaluated by
the health care professional and/or multidisciplinary team, with referrals made as
needed:
1. At diagnosis
2. Annually and/or when not meeting treatment targets
3. When complicating factors (health conditions, physical limitations,
emotional factors, or basic living needs) develop that influence self- management
4. When transitions in life and care occur
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OUTCOMES
Goals of Nutrition Therapy for Adults With Diabetes

1. To promote and support healthful eating patterns, emphasizing a variety of
nutrient-dense foods in appropriate portion sizes, to improve overall health
and:
• achieve and maintain body weight goals
• attain individualized glycemic, blood pressure, and lipid goals
• delay or prevent the complications of diabetes
2. To address individual nutrition needs based on personal and cultural
preferences, health literacy and numeracy, access to healthful foods, willingness and
ability to make behavioral changes, and existing barriers to change
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OUTCOMES
Goals of Nutrition Therapy for Adults With

Diabetes (continued)
3. To maintain the pleasure of eating by providing nonjudgmental messages
about food choices while limiting food choices only when indicated by
scientific evidence
4. To provide an individual with diabetes the practical tools for developing
healthy eating patterns rather than focusing on individual macronutrients,
micronutrients, or single foods
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OUTCOMES
Medical Nutrition Therapy
Facilitating Positive Health Behaviors and Well-being to Improve Health Outcomes:

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OUTCOMES
Medical Nutrition Therapy (continued)

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OUTCOMES
Medical Nutrition Therapy (continued)
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OUTCOMES
Physical Activity
5.28 Children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes C or type 2 diabetes or
prediabetes B should engage in 60 min/day or more of moderate- or
vigorous-intensity aerobic activity, with vigorous muscle-strengthening and bone-
strengthening activities at least 3 days/week.
5.29 Most adults with type 1 diabetes C and type 2 diabetes B should engage in
150 min or more of moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic activity per
week, spread over at least 3 days/week, with no more than 2 consecutive
days without activity. Shorter durations (minimum 75 min/week) of
vigorous-intensity or interval training may be sufficient for younger and more
physically fit individuals.
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OUTCOMES
Physical Activity (continued)

5.30 Adults with type 1 diabetes C and type 2 diabetes B should engage in 2–3
sessions/week of resistance exercise on nonconsecutive days. C
5.31 All adults, and particularly those with type 2 diabetes, should decrease the
amount of time spent in daily sedentary behavior. B Prolonged sitting
should be interrupted every 30 min for blood glucose benefits. C
5.32 Flexibility training and balance training are recommended 2–3 times/week
for older adults with diabetes. Yoga and tai chi may be included based on
individual preferences to increase flexibility, muscular strength, and
balance. C
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Facilitating Positive Health Behaviors and Well-being to Improve Health Outcomes
Physical Activity (continued)

5.33 Evaluate baseline physical activity and sedentary time. Promote increase in
nonsedentary activities above baseline for sedentary individuals with type
1 diabetes E and type 2 diabetes. B Examples include walking, yoga,
housework, gardening, swimming, and dancing.
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OUTCOMES
Smoking Cessation: Tobacco & E-cigarettes

5.34 Advise all patients not to use cigarettes and other tobacco products or e-
cigarettes. A
5.35 After identification of tobacco or e-cigarette use, include smoking cessation
counseling and other forms of treatment as a routine component of
diabetes care. A
5.36 Address smoking cessation as part of diabetes education programs for
those in need. B
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OUTCOMES
Supporting Positive Health Behaviors

5.37 Behavioral strategies should be used to support diabetes self-management
and engagement in health behaviors (e.g., taking medications, using
diabetes technologies, physical activity, healthy eating) to promote optimal
diabetes health outcomes. A
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OUTCOMES
Psychosocial Care
5.38 Psychosocial care should be provided to all people with diabetes, with the goal
of optimizing health-related quality of life and health outcomes. Such care
should be integrated with routine medical care and delivered by trained health
care professionals using a collaborative, person-centered, culturally informed
approach. A When indicated and available, qualified mental health professionals
should provide additional targeted mental health care. B
5.39 Diabetes care teams should implement psychosocial screening protocols that
may include but are not limited to attitudes about diabetes, expectations for
treatment and outcomes, general and diabetes-related mood, stress and/or quality
of life, available resources (financial, social, family, and emotional), and/or
psychiatric history. Screening should occur at periodic intervals and when there is a
change in disease, treatment, or life circumstances. C
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OUTCOMES
Psychosocial Care (continued)

5.40 When indicated, refer to mental health professionals or other trained health
care professionals for further assessment and treatment for symptoms of diabetes
distress, depression, suicidality, anxiety, treatment- related fear of
hypoglycemia, disordered eating, and/or cognitive capacities. Such
specialized psychosocial care should use age-appropriate standardized and
validated tools and treatment approaches. B
5.41 Consider screening older adults (aged ≥65 years) with diabetes for
cognitive impairment, frailty, and depressive symptoms. Monitoring of
cognitive capacity, i.e., the ability to actively engage in decision-making
regarding treatment plan behaviors, is advised . B
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OUTCOMES
Referral to a Mental Health Professional

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OUTCOMES
Diabetes Distress
5.42 Routinely monitor people with diabetes, caregivers, and family members
for diabetes distress, particularly when treatment targets are not met and/or
at the onset of diabetes complications. Refer to a qualified mental health
professional or other trained health care professional for further assessment and
treatment if indicated. B
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OUTCOMES
Anxiety
5.43 Consider screening people with diabetes for anxiety symptoms or diabetes-
related worries. Health care professionals can discuss diabetes-related
worries and may refer to a qualified mental health professional for further
assessment and treatment if anxiety symptoms indicate interference with
diabetes self-management behaviors or quality of life. B
5.44 Refer people with hypoglycemia unawareness, which can co-occur with
fear of hypoglycemia, to a trained professional to receive evidence-based
intervention to help re-establish awareness of symptoms of hypoglycemia
and reduce fear of hypoglycemia. A
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OUTCOMES
Depression
5.45 Consider at least annual screening of depressive symptoms in all people
with diabetes, especially those with a self-reported history of depression. U
se age-appropriate, validated depression screening measures, recognizing
that further evaluation will be necessary for individuals who have a positive
screen. B
5.46 Beginning at diagnosis of complications or when there are significant
changes in medical status, consider assessment for depression. B
5.47 Refer to qualified mental health professionals or other trained health care
professionals with experience using evidence-based treatment approaches
for depression in conjunction with collaborative care with the diabetes
treatment team. A
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OUTCOMES
Disordered Eating Behavior

5.48 Consider screening for disordered or disrupted eating using validated
screening measures when hyperglycemia and weight loss are unexplained based
on self-reported behaviors related to medication dosing, meal plan, and physical
activity. In addition, a review of the medical treatment plan is recommended
to identify potential treatment-related effects on hunger/caloric intake. B
5.49 Consider reevaluating the treatment plan of people with diabetes who
present with symptoms of disordered eating behavior, an eating disorder,
or disrupted patterns of eating, in consultation with a qualified professional
as available. Key qualifications include familiarity with the diabetes disease
physiology, treatments for diabetes and disordered eating behaviors, and
weight-related and psychological risk factors for disordered eating
behaviors . B
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OUTCOMES
Serious Mental Illness

5.50 Provide an increased level of support for people with diabetes and serious
mental illness through enhanced monitoring of and assistance with
diabetes self-management behaviors. B
5.51 In people who are prescribed atypical antipsychotic medications, screen for
prediabetes and diabetes 4 months after medication initiation and sooner
if clinically indicated, at least annually. B
5.52 If a second-generation antipsychotic medication is prescribed for
adolescents or adults with diabetes, changes in weight, glycemia, and
cholesterol levels should be carefully monitored, and the treatment plan should
be reassessed accordingly. C
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OUTCOMES
Cognitive Capacity/Impairment
5.53 Cognitive capacity should be monitored throughout the life span for all
individuals with diabetes, particularly in those who have documented
cognitive disabilities, those who experience severe hypoglycemia, very
young children, and older adults. B
5.54 If cognitive capacity changes or appears to be suboptimal for patient
decision-making and/or behavioral self-management, referral for a formal
assessment should be considered. E
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OUTCOMES

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OUTCOMES
Sleep Health
5.55 Consider screening for sleep health in people with diabetes, including
symptoms of sleep disorders, disruptions to sleep due to diabetes
symptoms or management needs, and worries about sleep. Refer to sleep
medicine and/or a qualified behavioral health professional as indicated. B
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Section 6.
Glycemic Targets
GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Glycemic Assessment
6.1 Assess glycemic status (A1C or other glycemic measurement such as time
in range or glucose management indicator) at least two times a year in
patients who are meeting treatment goals (and who have stable glycemic
control). E
6.2 Assess glycemic status at least quarterly and as needed in patients whose
therapy has recently changed and/or who are not meeting glycemic goals.
E
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GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Estimated Average Glucose
Glycemic Targets:
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GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Standardized CGM Metrics
Glycemic Targets:
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GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Glucose Assessment by Continuous Glucose Monitoring
6.3 Standardized, single-page glucose reports from continuous glucose

monitoring (CGM) devices with visual cues, such as the ambulatory glucose
profile, should be considered as a standard summary for all CGM devices. E
6.4 Time in range is associated with the risk of microvascular complications
and can be used for assessment of glycemic control. Additionally, time below
range and time above range are useful parameters for the evaluation of the
treatment plan (Table 6.2). C
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GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Glycemic Targets:
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GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Glycemic Goals
6.5a An A1C goal for many nonpregnant adults of <7% (53 mmol/mol) without
significant hypoglycemia is appropriate. A
6.5b If using ambulatory glucose profile/glucose management indicator to assess
glycemia, a parallel goal for many nonpregnant adults is time in range of >70%
with time below range <4% and time <54 mg/dL <1%. For those with frailty or at
high risk of hypoglycemia, a target of >50% time in range with <1% time
below range is recommended. (See Fig. 6.1 and Table 6.2.). B
6.6 On the basis of health care professional judgment and patient preference,
achievement of lower A1C levels than the goal of 7% may be acceptable
and even beneficial if it can be achieved safely without significant
hypoglycemia or other adverse effects of treatment. B
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GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Glycemic Goals (continued)

6.7 Less stringent A1C goals (such as <8% [64 mmol/mol]) may be appropriate
for patients with limited life expectancy or where the harms of treatment
are greater than the benefits. Health care professionals should consider
deintensification of therapy if appropriate to reduce the risk of
hypoglycemia in patients with inappropriate stringent A1C targets. B
6.8 Reassess glycemic targets based on the individualized criteria in Fig. 6.2. E
6.9 Reassess Setting a glycemic goal during consultations is likely to improve
patient outcomes. E
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GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Glycemic Targets: | 89

GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Cardiovascular Disease and Type 2 Diabetes

As outlined in more detail in Section 9, “Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic
Treatment,” and Section 10, “Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Management,” the
cardiovascular benefits of SGLT2 inhibitors or GLP-1 receptor agonists are not
contingent upon A1C lowering; therefore, initiation can be considered in people with
type 2 diabetes and CVD independent of the current A1C or A1C goal or metformin
therapy. Based on these considerations, the following two strategies are offered (70):
1. If already on dual therapy or multiple glucose-lowering therapies and not on an
SGLT2 inhibitor or GLP-1 receptor agonist, consider switching to one of these
agents with proven cardiovascular benefit.
2. Introduce SGLT2 inhibitors or GLP-1 receptor agonists in people with CVD at
A1C goal (independent of metformin) for cardiovascular benefit, independent of
baseline A1C or individualized A1C target. | 90
Glycemic targets
Glycemic Targets:
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Glycemic targets
Hypoglycemia
6.10 Occurrence and risk for hypoglycemia should be reviewed at every
encounter and investigated as indicated. Awareness of hypoglycemia should be
considered using validated tools. C
6.11 Glucose (approximately 15–20 g) is the preferred treatment for the
conscious individual with blood glucose <70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L), although any form
of carbohydrate that contains glucose may be used. 15 min after treatment, if blood
glucose monitoring (BGM) shows continued hypoglycemia, the treatment should be
repeated. Once the BGM or glucose pattern is trending up, the individual should
consume a meal or snack to prevent recurrence of hypoglycemia. B
| 92
GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Hypoglycemia (continued)
6.12 Glucagon should be prescribed for all individuals at increased risk of level
2 or 3 hypoglycemia, so that it is available should it be needed. Caregivers,
school personnel, or family members providing support to these individuals should
know where it is and when and how to administer it. Glucagon administration is not
limited to health care professionals. E
6.13 Hypoglycemia unawareness or one or more episodes of level 3
hypoglycemia should trigger hypoglycemia avoidance education and reevaluation and
adjustment of the treatment plan to decrease hypoglycemia. E
| 93
GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Hypoglycemia (continued)
6.13 Hypoglycemia unawareness or one or more episodes of level 3
hypoglycemia should trigger hypoglycemia avoidance education and reevaluation and
adjustment of the treatment plan to decrease hypoglycemia. E
 Insulin-treated patients with hypoglycemia unawareness, one level 3
hypoglycemic event, or a pattern of unexplained level 2 hypoglycemia should
be advised to raise their glycemic targets to strictly avoid hypoglycemia for at
least several weeks in order to partially reverse hypoglycemia unawareness
and reduce risk of future episodes. A
6.15 Ongoing assessment of cognitive function is suggested with increased
vigilance for hypoglycemia by the clinician, patient, and caregivers if
impaired or declining cognition is found. B
| 94
GLYCEMIC TARGETS
Glycemic Targets:
| 95
Section 7.
Diabetes
Technology
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
General Device Principles

7.1 The type(s) and selection of devices should be individualized based on a
person’s specific needs, desires, skill level, and availability of devices. In
the setting of an individual whose diabetes is partially or wholly managed by
someone else (e.g., a young child or a person with cognitive impairment),
the caregiver’s skills and desires are integral to the decision-making
process. E
7.2 When prescribing a device, ensure that people with diabetes/caregivers
receive initial and ongoing education and training, either in-person or
remotely, and regular evaluation of technique, results, and their ability to
use data, including uploading/ sharing data (if applicable), to adjust
therapy. C
| 97
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
General Device Principles

7.3 People who have been using continuous glucose monitoring, continuous
subcutaneous insulin infusion, and/or automated insulin delivery for
diabetes management should have continued access across third party
payers. E
7.4 Students must be supported at school in the use of diabetes technology
including continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion, connected insulin
pens, and automated insulin delivery systems as prescribed by their
diabetes care team. E
7.5 Initiation of continuous glucose monitoring, continuous subcutaneous
insulin infusion, and/or automated insulin delivery early in the treatment
of diabetes can be beneficial depending on a person’s/caregiver’s needs
and preferences. C | 98
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
Blood Glucose Monitoring

7.6 People with diabetes should be provided with blood glucose monitoring
devices as indicated by their circumstances, preferences, and treatment.
People using continuous glucose monitoring devices must have access to
blood glucose monitoring at all times. A
7.7 People who are on insulin using blood glucose monitoring should be
encouraged to check when appropriate based on their insulin regimen. This may
include checking when fasting, prior to meals and snacks, at bedtime, prior
to exercise, when low blood glucose is suspected, after treating low blood glucose
levels until they are normoglycemic, and prior to and while performing
critical tasks such as driving. B
| 99
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
Blood Glucose Monitoring (continued)

7.8 Providers should be aware of the differences in accuracy among blood
glucose meters only U.S. Food and Drug Administration–approved meters
with proven accuracy should be used, with unexpired strips purchased
from a pharmacy or licensed distributor. E
7.9 Although blood glucose monitoring in individuals on noninsulin therapies
has not consistently shown clinically significant reductions in A1C, it may
be helpful when altering diet, physical activity, and/or medications
(particularly medications that can cause hypoglycemia) in conjunction with a
treatment adjustment program. E
| 100
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
Blood Glucose Monitoring (continued)

7.10 Health care professionals should be aware of medications and other
factors, such as high-dose vitamin C and hypoxemia, that can interfere with
glucose meter accuracy and provide clinical management as indicated. E
| 101
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
Diabetes Technology:
| 102
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
Continuous Glucose Monitoring Devices

7.11 Real-time continuous glucose monitoring A or intermittently scanned
continuous glucose monitoring B should be offered for diabetes
management in adults with diabetes on multiple daily injections or continuous
subcutaneous insulin infusion who are capable of using the devices safely (either by
themselves or with a caregiver). The choice of device should be made based on the
individual’s circumstances, preferences, and needs.
7.12 Real-time continuous glucose monitoring A or intermittently scanned
continuous glucose monitoring C should be offered for diabetes
management in adults with diabetes on basal insulin who are capable of using
the devices safely (either by themselves or with a caregiver). The choice of device
should be made based on the individual’s circumstances, preferences, and needs.
| 103
Diabetes Technology

(continued)
7.13 Real-time continuous glucose monitoring B or intermittently scanned
continuous glucose monitoring E should be offered for diabetes
management in youth with type 1 diabetes on multiple daily injections or
continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion who are capable of using the
devices safely (either by themselves or with a caregiver). The choice of device
should be made based on the individual’s circumstances, preferences, and needs.
7.14 Real-time continuous glucose monitoring or intermittently scanned
continuous glucose monitoring should be offered for diabetes management in
youth with type 2 diabetes on multiple daily injections or continuous subcutaneous
insulin infusion who are capable of using the devices safely (either by
themselves or with a caregiver). The choice of device should be made based on
the individual’s circumstances, preferences, and needs. E | 104
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY

(continued)
7.15 In people with diabetes on multiple daily injections or continuous
subcutaneous insulin infusion, real-time continuous glucose monitoring
devices should be used as close to daily as possible for maximal benefit. A
Intermittently scanned continuous glucose monitoring devices should be
scanned frequently, at a minimum once every 8 h. A People with diabetes should
have uninterrupted access to their supplies to minimize gaps in continuous
glucose monitoring. A
7.16 When used as an adjunct to pre- and postprandial blood glucose
monitoring, continuous glucose monitoring can help to achieve A1C targets in
diabetes and pregnancy. B
| 105
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY

(continued)
7.17 Periodic use of real-time or intermittently scanned continuous glucose
monitoring or use of professional continuous glucose monitoring can be
helpful for diabetes management in circumstances where continuous use
of continuous glucose monitoring is not appropriate, desired, or available.
C
7.18 Skin reactions, either due to irritation or allergy, should be assessed and
addressed to aid in successful use of devices. E
7.19 Continuous glucose monitoring device users should be educated on
potential interfering substances and other factors that may affect accuracy. C
| 106
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
| 107
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
| 108
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
| 109
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
Insulin Syringes and Pens

7.20 For people with insulin-requiring diabetes on multiple daily injections,
insulin pens are preferred in most cases. Still, insulin syringes may be used
for insulin delivery considering individual and caregiver preference, insulin
type, dosing therapy, cost, and self-management capabilities . C
7.21 Insulin pens or insulin injection aids should be considered for people with
dexterity issues or vision impairment to facilitate the accurate dosing and
administration of insulin. C
7.22 Connected insulin pens can be helpful for diabetes management and may
be used in people with diabetes using injectable therapy. E
| 110
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
Insulin Syringes and Pens (continued)

7.23 U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved insulin dose
calculators/decision support systems may be helpful for titrating insulin doses.
E
| 111
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
Insulin Pumps and Automated Insulin

Delivery Systems
7.24 Automated insulin delivery systems should be offered for diabetes
management to youth and adults with type 1 diabetes A and other types of insulin
deficient diabetes E who are capable of using the device safely (either by themselves or
with a caregiver). The choice of device should be made based on the individual’s
circumstances, preferences, and needs.
7.25 Insulin pump therapy alone with or without sensor-augmented pump low
glucose suspend feature and/or automated insulin delivery systems should be
offered for diabetes management to youth and adults on multiple daily injections with
type 1 diabetes A or other types of insulin-deficient diabetes E who are capable of using
the device safely (either by themselves or with a caregiver) and are not able to use or do
not choose an automated insulin delivery system. The choice of device should be
made based on the individual’s circumstances, preferences, and needs. A | 112
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
Insulin Pumps and Automated Insulin

Delivery Systems (continued)
7.26 Insulin pump therapy can be offered for diabetes management to youth
and adults on multiple daily injections with type 2 diabetes who are
capable of using the device safely (either by themselves or with a caregiver). The
choice of device should be made based on the individual’s circumstances,
preferences, and needs. A
7.27 Individuals with diabetes who have been using continuous subcutaneous
insulin infusion should have continued access across third-party payers. E
| 113
DIABETES TECHNOLOGY
Do-It-Yourself Closed-Loop Systems

7.28 Individuals with diabetes may be using systems not approved by the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, such as do-it yourself closed-loop systems
and others; health care professionals cannot prescribe these systems but
should assist in diabetes management to ensure the safety of people with
diabetes. E
| 114
Diabetes Technology
Digital Health Technology

7.29 Systems that combine technology and online coaching can be beneficial in
treating prediabetes and diabetes for some individuals. B
| 115
Diabetes Technology
Inpatient Care
7.30 People with diabetes who are competent to safely use diabetes devices
such as insulin pumps and continuous glucose monitoring systems should
be supported to continue using them in an inpatient setting or during
outpatient procedures, once competency is established and proper supervision is
available. E
| 116
Section 8.
Obesity and Weight

Management for the
Treatment of Type 2
Diabetes
OBESITY MANAGEMENT FOR THE TREATMENT OF TYPE 2 DIABETES
Assessment
8.1 Use person-centered, nonjudgmental language that fosters collaboration
between individuals and health care professionals, including person-first
language (e.g., “person with obesity” rather than “obese person”). E
8.2 Measure height and weight and calculate BMI at annual visits or more
frequently. Assess weight trajectory to inform treatment considerations. E
| 118
Assessment (continued)
8.3 Based on clinical considerations, such as the presence of comorbid heart
failure or significant unexplained weight gain or loss, weight may need to
be monitored and evaluated more frequently. B If deterioration of medical
status is associated with significant weight gain or loss, inpatient evaluation
should be considered, especially focused on associations between
medication use, food intake, and glycemic status. E
8.4 Accommodations should be made to provide privacy during weighing. E
| 119
Assessment (continued)
8.5 Individuals with diabetes and overweight or obesity may benefit from
modest or larger magnitudes of weight loss. Relatively small weight loss
(approximately 3–7% of baseline weight) improves glycemia and other
intermediate cardiovascular risk factors. A Larger, sustained weight losses
(>10%) usually confer greater benefits, including disease-modifying effects
and possible remission of type 2 diabetes, and may improve long-term
cardiovascular outcomes and mortality. B
| 120
Nutritional, Physical Activity, & Behavioral

Therapy
8.6 Nutrition, physical activity, and behavioral therapy to achieve and maintain
≥5% weight loss are recommended for most people with type 2 diabetes
and overweight or obesity. Additional weight loss usually results in further
improvements in the management of diabetes and cardiovascular risk. B
8.7 Such interventions should include a high frequency of counseling (≥16
sessions in 6 months) and focus on nutrition changes, physical activity, and
behavioral strategies to achieve a 500–750 kcal/day energy deficit. A
| 121
Nutrition, Physical Activity, & Behavioral

Therapy (continued)
8.8 An individual’s preferences, motivation, and life circumstances should be
considered, along with medical status, when weight loss interventions are
recommended. C
8.9 Behavioral changes that create an energy deficit, regardless of
macronutrient composition, will result in weight loss. Nutrition
recommendations should be individualized to the person’s preferences and
nutritional needs. A
| 122

Therapy (continued)
8.10 Evaluate systemic, structural, and socioeconomic factors that may impact
nutrition patterns and food choices, such as food insecurity and hunger,
access to healthful food options, cultural circumstances, and social
determinants of health. C
8.11 For those who achieve weight loss goals, long-term (≥1 year) weight
maintenance programs are recommended when available. Such programs
should, at minimum, provide monthly contact and support, recommend
ongoing monitoring of body weight (weekly or more frequently) and other
self-monitoring strategies, and encourage regular physical activity (200–
300 min/week). A
| 123

Therapy (continued)
8.12 Short-term nutrition intervention using structured, very-low-calorie meals
(800–1,000 kcal/day) may be prescribed for carefully selected individuals
by trained practitioners in medical settings with close monitoring. Long-
term, comprehensive weight maintenance strategies and counseling should
be integrated to maintain weight loss. B
 There is no clear evidence that nutrition supplements are effective for weight
loss. A
| 124
Obesity Management for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes:

| 125
Pharmacotherapy
8.14 When choosing glucose-lowering medications for people with type 2
diabetes and overweight or obesity, consider the medication’s effect on
weight. B
8.15 Whenever possible, minimize medications for comorbid conditions that are
associated with weight gain. E
8.16 Obesity pharmacotherapy is effective as an adjunct to nutrition, physical
activity, and behavioral counseling for selected people with type 2 diabetes
and BMI ≥27 kg/m2. Potential benefits and risks must be considered. A
| 126
Pharmacotherapy (continued)
8.17 If obesity pharmacotherapy is effective (typically defined as ≥5% weight
loss after 3 months’ use), further weight loss is likely with continued use.
When early response is insufficient (typically <5% weight loss after 3
months’ use) or if there are significant safety or tolerability issues, consider
discontinuation of the medication and evaluate alternative medications or
treatment approaches. A
| 127
Metabolic Surgery
8.18 Metabolic surgery should be a recommended option to treat type 2
diabetes in screened surgical candidates with BMI ≥40 kg/m2 (BMI ≥37.5 kg/m2
in Asian American individuals) and in adults with BMI 35.0–39.9 kg/m2 (32.5–
37.4 kg/m2 in Asian American individuals) who do not achieve durable weight
loss and improvement in comorbidities (including hyperglycemia) with
nonsurgical methods. A
8.19 Metabolic surgery may be considered as an option to treat type 2 diabetes
in adults with BMI 30.0–34.9 kg/m2 (27.5–32.4 kg/m2 in Asian American
individuals) who do not achieve durable weight loss and improvement in
comorbidities (including hyperglycemia) with nonsurgical methods. A
| 128
Metabolic Surgery (continued)

8.20 Metabolic surgery should be performed in high-volume centers with
multidisciplinary teams knowledgeable about and experienced in managing
obesity, diabetes, and gastrointestinal surgery. E
8.21 People being considered for metabolic surgery should be evaluated for
comorbid psychological conditions and social and situational circumstances
that have the potential to interfere with surgery outcomes. B
| 129

8.22 People who undergo metabolic surgery should receive long-term medical
and behavioral support and routine micronutrient, nutritional, and
metabolic status monitoring. B
8.23 If postbariatric hypoglycemia is suspected, clinical evaluation should
exclude other potential disorders contributing to hypoglycemia, and
management includes education, medical nutrition therapy with a dietitian
experienced in postbariatric hypoglycemia, and medication treatment, as
needed. A Continuous glucose monitoring should be considered as an
important adjunct to improve safety by alerting individuals to hypoglycemia,
especially for those with severe hypoglycemia or hypoglycemia unawareness. E
| 130

8.24 People who undergo metabolic surgery should routinely be evaluated to
assess the need for ongoing mental health services to help with the
adjustment to medical and psychosocial changes after surgery. C
| 131
Medications Approved by the FDA for Obesity Tx

| 132
Medications Approved by the FDA for Obesity Tx

| 133
A Vertical Sleeve Gastrectomy

| 134
Section 9.
Pharmacologic
Approaches to
Glycemic
Treatment
PHARMACOLOGIC APPROACHES TO GLYCEMIC TREATMENT
Pharmacologic Therapy for Adults With Type

1 Diabetes
 Most individuals with type 1 diabetes should be treated with multiple daily
injections of prandial and basal insulin, or continuous subcutaneous insulin
infusion. A
 Most individuals with type 1 diabetes should use rapid-acting insulin analogs to
reduce hypoglycemia risk. A
 Individuals with type 1 diabetes should receive education on how to match
mealtime insulin doses to carbohydrate intake, fat and protein content, and
anticipated physical activity. B
| 136

2 Diabetes
 Healthy lifestyle behaviors, diabetes self-management education and support,
avoidance of clinical inertia, and social determinants of health should be
considered in the glucose-lowering management of type 2 diabetes. Pharmacologic
therapy should be guided by person-centered treatment factors, including
comorbidities and treatment goals. A
 In adults with type 2 diabetes and established/high risk of atherosclerotic
cardiovascular disease, heart failure, and/or chronic kidney disease, the treatment
regimen should include agents that reduce cardiorenal risk (Fig. 9.3 and Table 9.2).
A
| 137

2 Diabetes (continued)
 Pharmacologic approaches that provide adequate efficacy to achieve and maintain
treatment goals should be considered, such as metformin or other agents, including
combination therapy (Fig. 9.3 and Table 9.2).. E
 Weight management is an impactful component of glucose-lowering management
in type 2 diabetes. The glucose-lowering treatment regimen should consider
approaches that support weight management goals (Fig. 9.3 and Table 9.2). A
| 138

 Metformin should be continued upon initiation of insulin therapy (unless
contraindicated or not tolerated) for ongoing glycemic and metabolic benefits. A
 Early combination therapy can be considered in some individuals at treatment
initiation to extend the time to treatment failure. A
 The early introduction of insulin should be considered if there is evidence of
ongoing catabolism (weight loss), if symptoms of hyperglycemia are present, or
when A1C levels (>10% [86 mmol/mol]) or blood glucose levels (≥300mg/dL
[16.7mmol/L]) are very high. E
| 139

9.8 A person-centered approach should guide the choice of pharmacologic agents.
Consider the effects on cardiovascular and renal comorbidities, efficacy,
hypoglycemia risk, impact on weight, cost and access, risk for side effects, and
individual preferences (Fig. 9.3 and Table 9.2). E
 Among individuals with type 2 diabetes who have established atherosclerotic cardiovascular
disease or indicators of high cardiovascular risk, established kidney disease, or heart failure, a
sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor and/or glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor
agonist with demonstrated cardiovascular disease benefit is recommended as part of the
glucose-lowering regimen and comprehensive cardiovascular risk reduction, independent of
A1C and in consideration of person-specific factors. A
| 140

 In adults with type 2 diabetes, a glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist is
preferred to insulin when possible. A
 If insulin is used, combination therapy with a glucagon-like peptide 1
receptor agonist is recommended for greater efficacy, durability of
treatment effect, and weight and hypoglycemia benefit. A
 Recommendation for treatment intensification for individuals not meeting
treatment goals should not be delayed. A
| 141

9.13 Medication regimen and medication-taking behavior should be reevaluated
at regular intervals (every 3–6 months) and adjusted as needed to
incorporate specific factors that impact choice of treatment (Fig. 4.1 and Table
9.2). E
9.14 Clinicians should be aware of the potential for overbasalization with insulin
therapy. Clinical signals that may prompt evaluation of overbasalization
include basal dose more than ~0.5 units/kg/day, high bedtime–morning or
postpreprandial glucose differential, hypoglycemia (aware or unaware),
and high glycemic variability. Indication of overbasalization should prompt
reevaluation to further individualize therapy. E
| 142
Pharmacologic
Approaches to
Glycemic
Management:
Standards of Care in
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S140-S157
| 143
Pharmacologic
Approaches to
Glycemic
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S140-S157
| 144
Pharmacologic
Approaches to
Glycemic
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S140-S157
| 145
Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic Management:

| 146
Pharmacologic Approaches to Glycemic Management:

| 147
Pharmacologic
Approaches to
Glycemic
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S140-S157
| 148
Pharmacologic
Approaches to
Glycemic
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S140-S157
| 149
Median monthly cost
AWP and NADAC of
maximum approved
daily dose of
noninsulin glucose-
lowering agents in the
U.S.
Pharmacologic
Approaches to
Glycemic
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl. | 150
1):S140-S157
Median cost of insulin
products in the U.S.
calculated as AWP and
NADAC per 1,000 units
of specified dosage
Pharmacologic
Approaches to
Glycemic
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl. | 151
1):S140-S157
Section 10.
Cardiovascular
Disease and Risk
Management
CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE AND RISK MANAGEMENT
Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Management: | 153

Screening and Diagnosis

10.1 measured at every routine clinical visit. When possible, individuals found to
have elevated blood pressure (systolic blood pressure 120–129 mmHg and
diastolic <80 mmHg) should have blood pressure confirmed using multiple
readings, including measurements on a separate day, to diagnose
hypertension. A Hypertension is defined as a systolic blood pressure ≥130
mmHg or a diastolic blood pressure ≥80 mmHg based on an average of ≥2
measurements obtained on ≥2 occasions. A Individuals with blood pressure
≥180/110 mmHg and cardiovascular disease could be diagnosed with
hypertension at a single visit. E
10.2 All people with hypertension and diabetes should monitor their blood
pressure at home. A
| 154
Treatment Goals
10.3 For patients with diabetes and hypertension, blood pressure targets should
be individualized through a shared decision-making process that addresses
cardiovascular risk, potential adverse effects of antihypertensive
medications, and patient preferences. B
 People with diabetes and hypertension qualify for antihypertensive drug therapy
when the blood pressure is persistently elevated ≥130/80 mmHg. The on-treatment
target blood pressure goal is <130/80 mmHg, if it can be safely attained. B
| 155
Treatment Goals (continued)

 In pregnant individuals with diabetes and chronic hypertension, a blood pressure
threshold of 140/90 mmHg for initiation or titration of therapy is associated with
better pregnancy outcomes than reserving treatment for severe hypertension, with
no increase in risk of small-for-gestational age birth weight. A
 There are limited data on the optimal lower limit, but therapy should be
lessened for blood pressure <90/60 mmHg. E
 A blood pressure target of 110–135/85 mmHg is suggested in the interest of
reducing the risk for accelerated maternal hypertension. A
| 156
Randomized
controlled trials
of intensive
versus standard
hypertension
treatment
strategies
Cardiovascular
Disease and Risk
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S158-S190
| 157
Treatment Strategies—Lifestyle Intervention

 For people with blood pressure >120/80 mmHg, lifestyle intervention consists of
weight loss when indicated, a Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH)-
style eating pattern including reducing sodium and increasing potassium intake,
moderation of alcohol intake, and increased physical activity. A
| 158
Treatment Strategies—Pharmacologic Interventions

 Individuals with confirmed office-based blood pressure ≥130/80 mmHg qualify for
initiation and titration of pharmacologic therapy to achieve the recommended
blood pressure goal of <130/80 mmHg. A
 Individuals with confirmed office-based BP ≥160/100 mmHg should, in addition
to lifestyle therapy, have prompt initiation and timely titration of two drugs or a
single-pill combination of drugs demonstrated to reduce cardiovascular events in
people with diabetes. A
 Treatment for hypertension should include drug classes demonstrated to reduce
cardiovascular events in people with diabetes. A
 ACEIs or ARBs are recommended first-line therapy for hypertension in people
with diabetes and coronary artery disease. A
| 159
Treatment Strategies—Pharmacologic
Interventions (continued)
10.10 Multiple-drug therapy is generally required to achieve blood pressure targets.
However, combinations of ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers and
combinations of ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers with direct
renin inhibitors should not be used. A
 An ACE inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker, at the maximum tolerated dose
indicated for blood pressure treatment, is the recommended first-line treatment for
hypertension in people with diabetes and urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio ≥300 mg/g
creatinine A or 30–299 mg/g creatinine. B If one class is not tolerated, the other should
be substituted. B
10.12 For patients treated with an ACE inhibitor, angiotensin receptor blocker, or
diuretic, serum creatinine/estimated glomerular filtration rate and serum
potassium levels should be monitored at least annually. B | 160
Recommendations
for the Treatment of
Confirmed
Hypertension in
People with
Diabetes (1 of 2)

Recommendations
for the Treatment of
Confirmed
Hypertension in
People with
Diabetes (2 of 2)
Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Management:

| 162
Treatment Strategies—Resistant Hypertension

10.13 Individuals with hypertension who are not meeting blood pressure targets
on three classes of antihypertensive medications (including a diuretic)
should be considered for mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist therapy.
A
| 163
Lipid Management—Lifestyle Intervention

10.14 Lifestyle modification focusing on weight loss (if indicated); application of
a Mediterranean or Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) eating
pattern; reduction of saturated fat and trans fat; increase of dietary n-3
fatty acids, viscous fiber, and plant stanols/sterols intake; and increased
physical activity should be recommended to improve the lipid profile and
reduce the risk of developing atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in
people with diabetes. A
10.15 Intensify lifestyle therapy andoptimize glycemic control for patients with
elevated triglyceride levels(≥150mg/dL[1.7mmol/L]) and/or low HDL
cholesterol (<40 mg/dL [1.0 mmol/L] for men, <50 mg/dL [1.3 mmol/L] for
women). C
| 164
Lipid Management—Ongoing Therapy and

Monitoring with Lipid Panel
10.16 In adults not taking statins or other lipid-lowering therapy, it is reasonable
to obtain a lipid profile at the time of diabetes diagnosis, at an initial
medical evaluation, and every 5 years thereafter if under the age of. E
10.17 Obtain a lipid profile at initiation of statins or other lipid-lowering therapy,
4–12 weeks after initiation or a change in dose, and annually thereafter as
it may help to monitor the response to therapy and inform medication
taking. E
| 165
Statin Treatment—Primary Prevention

 For people with diabetes aged 40–75 years without atherosclerotic cardiovascular
disease, use moderate-intensity statin therapy in addition to lifestyle therapy. A
10.19 For people with diabetes aged 20–39 years with additional atherosclerotic
cardiovascular disease risk factors, it may be reasonable to initiate statin
therapy in addition to lifestyle therapy. C
 For people with diabetes aged 40–75 at higher cardiovascular risk, including those
with one or more atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk factors, it is
recommended to use high-intensity statin therapy to reduce LDL cholesterol by
≥50% of baseline and to target an LDL cholesterol goal of <70 mg/dL. B
| 166
Statin Treatment—Primary Prevention

(continued)
 For people with diabetes aged 40–75 years at higher cardiovascular risk, especially
those with multiple atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk factors and an LDL
cholesterol ≥70 mg/dL, it may be reasonable to add ezetimibe or a PCSK9
inhibitor to maximum tolerated statin therapy. C
10.22 In adults with diabetes aged >75 years already on statin therapy, it is
reasonable to continue statin treatment. C
 In adults with diabetes aged >75 years, it may be reasonable to initiate moderate-
intensity statin therapy after discussion of potential benefits and risks. B
 Statin therapy is contraindicated in pregnancy. B
| 167
Statin Treatment—Secondary Prevention

 For people of all ages with diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease,
high intensity statin therapy should be added to lifestyle therapy. A
 For people with diabetes and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, treatment with
high intensity statin therapy is recommended to target an LDL cholesterol
reduction of ≥50% from baseline and an LDL cholesterol goal of <55 mg/dL.
Addition of ezetimibe or a PCSK9 inhibitor with proven benefit in this
population is recommended if this goal is not achieved on maximum tolerated
statin therapy. B
10.27 For individuals who do not tolerate the intended intensity, the maximum
tolerated statin dose should be used. E
| 168

Treatment of Other Lipoprotein Fractions or Targets

10.28 For individuals with fasting triglyceride levels ≥500 mg/dL, evaluate for
secondary causes of hypertriglyceridemia and consider medical therapy to
reduce the risk of pancreatitis. C
10.29 In adults with moderate hypertriglyceridemia (fasting or nonfasting
triglycerides 175–499 mg/dL), clinicians should address and treat lifestyle factors
(obesity and metabolic syndrome), secondary factors (diabetes, chronic liver or
kidney disease and/or nephrotic syndrome, hypothyroidism), and medications
that raise triglycerides. C
 In individuals with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease or other cardiovascular
risk factors on a statin with controlled LDL cholesterol but elevated triglycerides
(135–499 mg/dL), the addition of icosapent ethyl can be considered to reduce
cardiovascular risk. A | 170
Other Combination Therapy

 Statin plus fibrate combination therapy has not been shown to improve
atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease outcomes and is generally not
recommended. A.
 Statin plus niacin combination therapy has not been shown to provide additional
cardiovascular benefit above statin therapy alone, may increase the risk of stroke
with additional side effects, and is generally not recommended. A
| 171
Antiplatelet Agents
 Use aspirin therapy (75–162 mg/day) as a secondary prevention strategy in those
with diabetes and a history of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. A
 For individuals with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and documented aspirin
allergy, clopidogrel (75 mg/day) should be used. B
 Dual antiplatelet therapy (with low-dose aspirin and a P2Y12 inhibitor) is
reasonable for a year after an acute coronary syndrome and may have benefits
beyond this period. A
 Long-term treatment with dual antiplatelet therapy should be considered for
individuals with prior coronary intervention, high ischemic risk, and low bleeding
risk to prevent major adverse cardiovascular events. A
| 172
Antiplatelet Agents (continued)

 Combination therapy with aspirin plus low-dose rivaroxaban should be considered
for individuals with stable coronary and/or peripheral artery disease and low
bleeding risk to prevent major adverse limb and cardiovascular events. A
 Aspirin therapy (75–162 mg/day) may be considered as a primary prevention
strategy in those with diabetes who are at increased cardiovascular risk, after a
comprehensive discussion with the patient on the benefits versus the comparable
increased risk of bleeding. A
| 173
Cardiovascular Disease—Screening
10.39 In asymptomatic individuals, routine screening for coronary artery disease
is not recommended as it does not improve outcomes as long as
atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk factors are treated. A
10.40 Consider investigations for coronary artery disease in the presence of any
of the following: atypical cardiac symptoms (e.g., unexplained dyspnea,
chest discomfort); signs or symptoms of associated vascular disease
including carotid bruits, transient ischemic attack, stroke, claudication, or
peripheral arterial disease; or electrocardiogram abnormalities (e.g., Q
waves). E
| 174
Cardiovascular Disease—Treatment
 Among people with type 2 diabetes who have established atherosclerotic
cardiovascular disease or established kidney disease, a sodium-glucose
cotransporter 2 inhibitor or glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist with
demonstrated cardiovascular disease benefit (Table 10.3B and Table 10.3C) is
recommended as part of the comprehensive cardiovascular risk reduction and/or
glucose-lowering regimens. A
 In people with type 2 diabetes and established atherosclerotic cardiovascular
disease, multiple atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risk factors, or diabetic
kidney disease, a sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor with demonstrated
cardiovascular benefit is recommended to reduce the risk of major adverse
cardiovascular events and/or heart failure hospitalization. A
| 175
Cardiovascular Disease—Treatment (continued)

disease or multiple risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, a
glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist with demonstrated cardiovascular
benefit is recommended to reduce the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events.
A
disease or multiple risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease,
combined therapy with a sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor with
demonstrated cardiovascular benefit and a glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor
agonist with demonstrated cardiovascular benefit may be considered for
additive reduction in the risk of adverse cardiovascular and kidney events. A
| 176
 In people with type 2 diabetes and established heart failure with either preserved
or reduced ejection fraction, a sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor with
proven benefit in this patient population is recommended to reduce risk of
worsening heart failure and cardiovascular death. A
10.42b In people with type 2 diabetes and established heart failure with either
preserved or reduced ejection fraction, a sodium–glucose cotransporter 2
inhibitor with proven benefit in this patient population is recommended to
improve symptoms, physical limitations, and quality of life. A
| 177
10.43 For people with type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease with
albuminuria treated with maximum tolerated doses of ACE inhibitor or
angiotensin receptor blocker, addition of finerenone is recommended to
improve cardiovascular outcomes and reduce the risk of chronic kidney
disease progression. A
10.44 In people with known atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, particularly
coronary artery disease, ACE inhibitor or angiotensin receptor blocker
therapy is recommended to reduce the risk of cardiovascular events. A
10.45 In people with prior myocardial infarction, b-blockers should be continued
for 3 years after the event. B
| 178
10.46 Treatment of individuals with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction
should include a b-blocker with proven cardiovascular outcomes benefit,
unless otherwise contraindicated. A
10.47 In people with type 2 diabetes with stable heart failure, metformin may be
continued for glucose lowering if estimated glomerular filtration rate
remains >30 mL/min/1.73 m2 but should be avoided in unstable or hospitalized
individuals with heart failure. B
| 179
Table 10.3A—Cardiovascular
and cardiorenal outcomes trials
of available antihyperglycemic
medications completed after the
issuance of the FDA 2008
guidelines: DPP-4 inhibitors
Cardiovascular
Disease and Risk
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S158-S190
| 180
Table 10.3B—
Cardiovascular and
cardiorenal outcomes
trials of available
antihyperglycemic
medications completed
after the issuance
of the FDA 2008
guidelines: GLP-1
receptor agonists (1 of 2)
Cardiovascular
Disease and Risk
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S158-S190
| 181
Table 10.3B—
Cardiovascular and
trials of available
antihyperglycemic
after the issuance
of the FDA 2008
guidelines: GLP-1
receptor agonists (2 of 2)
Cardiovascular
Disease and Risk
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S158-S190
| 182
Table 10.3C—
Cardiovascular and
trials of available
antihyperglycemic
after the issuance
of the FDA 2008
guidelines: SGLT2
inhibitors
Cardiovascular
Disease and Risk
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
| 183
1):S158-S190
Table 10.3C—
Cardiovascular and
trials of available
antihyperglycemic
after the issuance
of the FDA 2008
guidelines: SGLT2
inhibitors
Cardiovascular
Disease and Risk
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
| 184
1):S158-S190
Figure 10.3—Approach to
risk reduction with SGLT2
inhibitor or GLP-1
receptor agonist therapy in
conjunction with other
traditional, guideline-based
preventive medical
therapies for blood
pressure, lipids, and
glycemia and antiplatelet
therapy
Cardiovascular
Disease and Risk
Management:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
| 185
1):S158-S190
Section 11.
Chronic Kidney
Disease and Risk
Management
CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE AND RISK MANAGEMENT
Chronic Kidney Disease—Screening

11.1a At least annually, urinary albumin (e.g., spot urinary albumin-to-creatinine
ratio) and estimated glomerular filtration rate should be assessed in people
with type 1 diabetes with duration of ≥5 years and in all people with type 2
diabetes regardless of treatment. B
11.1b In people with established diabetic kidney disease, urinary albumin (e.g.,
spot urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio) and estimated glomerular
filtration rate should be monitored 1–4 times per year depending on the stage
of the disease (Fig. 11.1). B
| 187
Chronic Kidney Disease—Treatment

11.2 Optimize glucose control to reduce the risk or slow the progression of
chronic kidney disease. A
11.3 Optimize blood pressure control and reduce blood pressure variability to
reduce the risk or slow the progression of chronic kidney disease. A
11.4a In nonpregnant people with diabetes and hypertension, either an ACE
inhibitor or an angiotensin receptor blocker is recommended for those with
moderately increased albuminuria (urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio 30–
299 mg/g creatinine) B and is strongly recommended for those with
severely increased albuminuria (urinary albuminto-creatinine ratio ≥300 mg/g
creatinine) and/or estimated glomerular filtration rate <60 mL/min/1.73 m2. A
| 188
Chronic Kidney Disease—Treatment (continued)

11.4b Periodically monitor serum creatinine and potassium levels for the
development of increased creatinine and hyperkalemia when ACE inhibitors,
angiotensin receptor blockers, and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists are
used, or hypokalemia when diuretics are used. B
11.4c An ACE inhibitor or an angiotensin receptor blocker is not recommended
for the primary prevention of chronic kidney disease in people with
diabetes who have normal blood pressure, normal urinary albumin-to-
creatinine ratio (<30 mg/g creatinine), and normal estimated glomerular
filtration rate. A
| 189

11.4d Do not discontinue renin-angiotensin system blockade for increases in
serum creatinine (≤30%) in the absence of volume depletion. A
11.5a For people with type 2 diabetes and diabetic kidney disease, use of a
sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor is recommended to reduce chronic kidney
disease progression and cardiovascular events in patients with an estimated
glomerular filtration rate ≥20 mL/min/1.73 m2 and urinary albumin ≥200
mg/g creatinine. A
| 190

11.5b For people with type 2 diabetes and diabetic kidney disease, use of a
sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor is recommended to reduce chronic kidney
disease progression and cardiovascular events in patients with an estimated
glomerular filtration rate ≥20 mL/min/1.73 m2 and urinary albumin ranging
from normal to 200 mg/g creatinine. B
11.5c In people with type 2 diabetes and diabetic kidney disease, consider use of
sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (if estimated glomerular
filtration rate is ≥20 mL/min/1.73 m2), a glucagon-like peptide 1 agonist, or a
nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist (if estimated glomerular
filtration rate is ≥25 mL/min/1.73 m2) additionally for cardiovascular risk
reduction . A
| 191

11.5d In people with chronic kidney disease and albuminuria who are at
increased risk for cardiovascular events or chronic kidney disease progression, a
nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist shown to be effective in
clinical trials is recommended to reduce chronic kidney disease progression and
cardiovascular events. A
11.6 In people with chronic kidney disease who have ≥300 mg/g urinary
albumin, a reduction of 30% or greater in mg/g urinary albumin is recommended
to slow chronic kidney disease progression. B
| 192

11.7 For people with non–dialysis dependent stage 3 or higher chronic kidney
disease, dietary protein intake should be aimed to a target level of 0.8 g/kg
body weight per day. A For patients on dialysis, higher levels of dietary
protein intake should be considered since protein energy wasting is a major
problem in some individuals on dialysis. B
11.8 Patients should be referred for evaluation by a nephrologist if they have
continuously increasing urinary albumin levels and/or continuously
decreasing estimated glomerular filtration rate and if the estimated glomerular
filtration rate is <30 mL/min/1.73 m2. A
| 193

11.9 Promptly refer to a nephrologist for uncertainty about the etiology of
kidney disease, difficult management issues, and rapidly progressing kidney
disease. A
| 194
MICROVASCULAR COMPLICATIONS AND FOOT CARE
Figure 11.1—Risk of
chronic kidney
disease (CKD)
progression,
frequency of visits,
and referral to
nephrology
according to
glomerular filtration
rate
(GFR) and
albuminuria.
| 195
Microvascular Complications and Foot Care:
| 196
Microvascular Complications and Foot Care:
Section 12.
Retinopathy,
Neuropathy, and
Foot Care
RETINOPATHY, NEUROPATHY, AND FOOT CARE
Diabetic Retinopathy
12.1 Optimize glycemic control to reduce the risk or slow the progression of
diabetic retinopathy. A
12.2 Optimize blood pressure and serum lipid control to reduce the risk or slow
the progression of diabetic retinopathy. A
| 198
Diabetic Retinopathy - Screening

12.3 Adults with type 1 diabetes should have an initial dilated and comprehensive
eye examination by an ophthalmologist or optometrist within 5 years after the
onset of diabetes. B
12.4 People with type 2 diabetes should have an initial dilated and comprehensive
eye examination by an ophthalmologist or optometrist at the time of the
diabetes diagnosis. B
12.5 If there is no evidence of retinopathy for one or more annual eye exams and
glycemia is well controlled, then screening every 1–2 years may be considered.
If any level of diabetic retinopathy is present, subsequent dilated retinal
examinations should be repeated at least annually by an ophthalmologist or
optometrist. If retinopathy is progressing or sight-threatening, then examinations
will be required more frequently. B
| 199
Diabetic Retinopathy - Screening (continued)

12.6 Programs that use retinal photography (with remote reading or use of a
validated assessment tool) to improve access to diabetic retinopathy
screening can be appropriate screening strategies for diabetic retinopathy. Such
programs need to provide pathways for timely referral for a comprehensive
eye examination when indicated . B
12.7 Individuals of childbearing potential with preexisting type 1 or type 2
diabetes who are planning pregnancy or who are pregnant should be
counseled on the risk of development and/or progression of diabetic
retinopathy. B
12.8 Individuals with preexisting type 1 or type 2 diabetes should receive an eye
exam before pregnancy and in the first trimester and should be monitored
every trimester and for 1 year postpartum as indicated by the degree
| 200 of
retinopathy. B
Diabetic Retinopathy—Treatment
12.9 Promptly refer individuals with any level of diabetic macular edema,
moderate or worse nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy (a precursor of
proliferative diabetic retinopathy), or any proliferative diabetic retinopathy to an
ophthalmologist who is knowledgeable and experienced in the management of
diabetic retinopathy. A
12.10 Panretinal laser photocoagulation therapy is indicated to reduce the risk of
vision loss in individuals with high-risk proliferative diabetic retinopathy
and, in some cases, severe nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy. A
| 201
Diabetic Retinopathy—Treatment (continued)

12.11 Intravitreous injections of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor are a
reasonable alternative to traditional panretinal laser photocoagulation for
some individuals with proliferative diabetic retinopathy and also reduce
the risk of vision loss in these individuals. A
12.12 Intravitreous injections of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor are
indicated as first-line treatment for most eyes with diabetic macular edema that
involves the foveal center and impairs vision acuity. A
12.13 Macular focal/grid photocoagulation and intravitreal injections of
corticosteroid are reasonable treatments in eyes with persistent diabetic
macular edema despite previous anti–vascular endothelial growth factor
therapy or eyes that are not candidates for this first-line approach. A
| 202
Diabetic Retinopathy—Treatment (continued)

12.14 The presence of retinopathy is not a contraindication to aspirin therapy
for cardioprotection, as aspirin does not increase the risk of retinal
hemorrhage. A
| 203
Neuropathy—Screening
12.15 All people with diabetes should be assessed for diabetic peripheral
neuropathy starting at diagnosis of type 2 diabetes and 5 years after the
diagnosis of type 1 diabetes and at least annually thereafter. B
12.16 Assessment for distal symmetric polyneuropathy should include a careful
history and assessment of either temperature or pinprick sensation (small-
fiber function) and vibration sensation using a 128-Hz tuning fork (for
large- fiber function). All people with diabetes should have annual 10-g
monofilament testing to identify feet at risk for ulceration and amputation. B
12.17 Symptoms and signs of autonomic neuropathy should be assessed in
patients with microvascular complications. E
| 204
Neuropathy—Screening
12.17 Symptoms and signs of autonomic neuropathy should be assessed in people
with diabetes starting at diagnosis of type 2 diabetes and 5 years after the
diagnosis of type 1 diabetes and at least annually thereafter and with evidence of
other microvascular complications, particularly kidney disease and diabetic
peripheral neuropathy. Screening can include asking about orthostatic
dizziness, syncope, or dry cracked skin in the extremities. Signs of autonomic
neuropathy include orthostatic hypotension, a resting tachycardia, or evidence
of peripheral dryness or cracking of skin. E
| 205
The early recognition and appropriate management of neuropathy in people with

diabetes is important. Points to be aware of include the following:
1. Diabetic neuropathy is a diagnosis of exclusion. Nondiabetic neuropathies may be
present in people with diabetes and may be treatable.
2. Up to 50% of diabetic peripheral neuropathy may be asymptomatic. If not
recognized and if preventive foot care is not implemented, people with diabetes
are at risk for injuries as well as diabetic foot ulcers and amputations.
3. Recognition and treatment of autonomic neuropathy may improve symptoms,
reduce sequelae, and improve quality of life
| 206
The following clinical tests may be used to assess small- and large-fiber function and
protective sensation:
1. Small-fiber function: pinprick and temperature sensation.
2. Large-fiber function: lower-extremity reflexes, vibration perception, and 10-g
monofilament.
3. Protective sensation: 10-g monofilament.
| 207
Neuropathy—Treatment
12.18 Optimize glucose control to prevent or delay the development of
neuropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes A and to slow the progression of
neuropathy in people with type 2 diabetes. C Optimize blood pressure and
serum lipid control to reduce the risk or slow the progression of diabetic
neuropathy. B
12.19 Assess and treat pain related to diabetic peripheral neuropathy B and
symptoms of autonomic neuropathy to improve quality of life. E
12.20 Gabapentinoids, serotoninnorepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, tricyclic
antidepressants, and sodium channel blockers are recommended as initial
pharmacologic treatments for neuropathic pain in diabetes. A Refer to
neurologist or pain specialist when pain control is not achieved within the
scope of practice of the treating physician. E | 208
Foot Care
12.21 Perform a comprehensive foot evaluation at least annually to identify risk
factors for ulcers and amputations. A
12.22 The examination should include inspection of the skin, assessment of foot
deformities, neurological assessment (10-g monofilament testing with at
least one other assessment: pinprick, temperature, vibration), and vascular
assessment, including pulses in the legs and feet. B
12.23 Individuals with evidence of sensory loss or prior ulceration or amputation
should have their feet inspected at every visit. A
| 209
Foot Care (continued)

12.24 Obtain a prior history of ulceration, amputation, Charcot foot, angioplasty
or vascular surgery, cigarette smoking, retinopathy, and renal disease and
assess current symptoms of neuropathy (pain, burning, numbness) and
vascular disease (leg fatigue, claudication). B
12.25 Initial screening for peripheral arterial disease should include assessment
of lower-extremity pulses, capillary refill time, rubor on dependency, pallor
on elevation, and venous filling time. Individuals with a history of leg
fatigue, claudication, and rest pain relieved with dependency or decreased
or absent pedal pulses should be referred for ankle–brachial index and for
further vascular assessment as appropriate. B
| 210

12.26 A multidisciplinary approach is recommended for individuals with foot
ulcers and high-risk feet (e.g., those on dialysis, those with Charcot foot,
those with a history of prior ulcers or amputation, and those with
peripheral arterial disease). B
12.27 Refer individuals who smoke and have a history of prior lower-extremity
complications, loss of protective sensation, structural abnormalities, or
peripheral arterial disease to foot care specialists for ongoing preventive
care and lifelong surveillance. B
| 211

12.28 Provide general preventive foot self-care education to all people with
diabetes, including those with loss of protective sensation, on appropriate
ways to examine their feet (palpation or visual inspection with an
unbreakable mirror) for daily surveillance of early foot problems. B
12.29 The use of specialized therapeutic footwear is recommended for people
with diabetes at high risk for ulceration, including those with loss of
protective sensation, foot deformities, ulcers, callous formation, poor peripheral
circulation, or history of amputation. B
| 212

12.30 For chronic diabetic foot ulcers that have failed to heal with optimal
standard care alone, adjunctive treatment with randomized controlled trial–
proven advanced agents should be considered. Considerations might include
negative-pressure wound therapy, placental membranes, bioengineered skin
substitutes, several acellular matrices, autologous fibrin and leukocyte platelet
patches, and topical oxygen therapy. A
| 213
Factors that are associated with the at-risk foot include the following:
• Poor glycemic control
• Peripheral neuropathy/LOPS
• PAD
• Foot deformities (bunions, hammertoes, Charcot joint, etc.)
• Preulcerative corns or calluses
• Prior ulceration
• Prior amputation
• Smoking
• Retinopathy
| 214
• Nephropathy (particularly individuals on dialysis or posttransplant)
| 215
Retinopathy, Neuropathy, and Foot Care:
| 216
Retinopathy, Neuropathy, and Foot Care:
Section 13.
Older Adults
OLDER ADULTS
Overall
13.1 Consider the assessment of medical, psychological, functional (self
management abilities), and social domains in older adults to provide a
framework to determine targets and therapeutic approaches for diabetes
management. B
12.2 Screen for geriatric syndromes (i.e., polypharmacy, cognitive impairment,
depression, urinary incontinence, falls, persistent pain, and frailty) in older
adults as they may affect diabetes self-management and diminish quality
of life. B
| 218
OLDER ADULTS
Neurocognitive Function
13.3 Screening for early detection of mild cognitive impairment or dementia
should be performed for adults 65 years of age or older at the initial visit,
annually, and as appropriate. B
| 219
OLDER ADULTS
Hypoglycemia
13.4 Because older adults with diabetes have a greater risk of hypoglycemia
than younger adults, episodes of hypoglycemia should be ascertained and
addressed at routine visits. B
13.5 For older adults with type 1 diabetes, continuous glucose monitoring is
recommended to reduce hypoglycemia. A
13.6 For older adults with type 2 diabetes on multiple daily doses of insulin,
continuous glucose monitoring should be considered to improve glycemic
outcomes and decrease glucose variability. B
13.7 For older adults with type 1 diabetes, consider the use of automated
insulin delivery systems B and other advanced insulin delivery devices such as
connected pens E to reduce risk of hypoglycemia, based on individual
| 220
ability.
OLDER ADULTS
Treatment Goals
13.8 Older adults who are otherwise healthy with few coexisting chronic
illnesses and intact cognitive function and functional status should have lower
glycemic goals (such as A1C <7.0–7.5% [53–58 mmol/mol]), while those with
multiple coexisting chronic illnesses, cognitive impairment, or functional
dependence should have less-stringent glycemic goals (such as A1C <8.0% [64
mmol/mol]). C
13.9 Glycemic goals for some older adults might reasonably be relaxed as part of
individualized care, but hyperglycemia leading to symptoms or risk of acute
hyperglycemia complications should be avoided in all people with diabetes.
C
| 221
OLDER ADULTS
Treatment Goals (continued)

13.10 Screening for diabetes complications should be individualized in older
adults. Particular attention should be paid to complications that would lead
to functional impairment. C
13.11 Treatment of hypertension to individualized target levels is indicated in
most older adults. C
13.12 Treatment of other cardiovascular risk factors should be individualized in
older adults considering the time frame of benefit. Lipid-lowering therapy
and aspirin therapy may benefit those with life expectancies at least equal
to the time frame of primary prevention or secondary intervention trials. E
| 222
OLDER ADULTS
Table 13.1—Framework
for considering
treatment goals for
glycemia, blood
pressure, and
dyslipidemia in older
adults with
diabetes
Older Adults:
Standards of Care
in Diabetes -
2023. Diabetes
Care
2023;46(Suppl.
| 223
1):S216-S229
OLDER ADULTS
Lifestyle Management
13.13 Optimal nutrition and protein intake is recommended for older adults;
regular exercise, including aerobic activity, weight-bearing exercise, and/or
resistance training, should be encouraged in all older adults who can safely
engage in such activities. B
13.14 For older adults with type 2 diabetes, overweight/obesity, and capacity to
safely exercise, an intensive lifestyle intervention focused on dietary
changes, physical activity, and modest weight loss (e.g., 5–7%) should be
considered for its benefits on quality of life, mobility and physical functioning, and
cardiometabolic risk factor control. A
| 224
OLDER ADULTS
Pharmacologic Therapy
13.15 In older adults with type 2 diabetes at increased risk of hypoglycemia,
medication classes with low risk of hypoglycemia are preferred. B
13.16 Overtreatment of diabetes is common in older adults and should be
avoided. B
13.17 Deintensification of treatment goals is recommended to reduce the risk of
hypoglycemia if it can be achieved within the individualized A1C target. B
13.18 Simplification of complex treatment plans (especially insulin) is
recommended to reduce the risk of hypoglycemia and polypharmacy and decrease the
burden of the disease if it can be achieved within the individualized A1C target.
B
13.19 Consider costs of care and insurance coverage rules when developing
treatment plans in order to reduce risk of cost-related barriers to adherence.
| 225
B
OLDER ADULTS
Figure 13.1—
Algorithm to simplify
insulin regimen for
older patients with
type 2 diabetes.
Older Adults:
Standards of Care
in Diabetes -
2023. Diabetes
Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S216-S229
| 226
OLDER ADULTS
Table 13.2—
Considerations for
treatment
regimen
simplification and
deintensification/
deprescribing in
older adults with
diabetes.
(1 of 2)
Older Adults:
Diabetes - 2023. Diabetes
Care 2023;46(Suppl.
1):S216-S229
| 227
OLDER ADULTS
Table 13.2—
Considerations
for treatment
regimen
simplification and
deintensification/
deprescribing in
older adults with
diabetes.
(2 of 2)
Older Adults:
Diabetes - 2023.
Diabetes Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1):S216-S229
| 228
OLDER ADULTS
Treatment in Skilled Nursing Facilities and

Nursing Homes
13.20 Consider diabetes education for the staff of long-term care and
rehabilitation facilities to improve the management of older adults with
diabetes. E
13.21 Patients with diabetes residing in long-term care facilities need careful
assessment to establish individualized glycemic goals and to make
appropriate choices of glucose-lowering agents based on their clinical and
functional status. E
13.22 Consider use of continuous glucose monitoring to assess risk for
hypoglycemia in older adults treated with sulfonylureas or insulin. E
| 229
OLDER ADULTS
The following alert strategy could be considered:

1. Call health care professional immediately in cases of low blood glucose levels
(<70 mg/dL [3.9 mmol/L]).
2. Call as soon as possible when
a) glucose values are 70–100 mg/dL (3.9 and 5.6 mmol/L) (regimen may
need to be adjusted),
b) glucose values are consistently >250 mg/dL (13.9mmol/L) within a 24-h
period,
c) glucose values are consistently >300 mg/dL (16.7 mmol/L) over 2
consecutive days,
d) any reading is too high for the glucose monitoring device, or
e) the person is sick, with vomiting, symptomatic hyperglycemia,
| 230
or poor oral intake.

OLDER ADULTS
End-of-Life Care
13.23 When palliative care is needed in older adults with diabetes, health care
professionals should initiate conversations regarding the goals and intensity
of care. Strict glucose and blood pressure control are not necessary E, and
simplification of regimens can be considered. Similarly, the intensity of
lipid management can be relaxed, and withdrawal of lipid-lowering therapy may
be appropriate. A
13.24 Overall comfort, prevention of distressing symptoms, and preservation of
quality of life and dignity are primary goals for diabetes management at
the end of life . C
| 231
OLDER ADULTS
Different patient categories have been proposed for diabetes management in those
with advanced disease:
1. A stable patient: Continue with the person’s previous regimen, with a focus
on 1) the prevention of hypoglycemia and 2) the management of
hyperglycemia using blood glucose testing, keeping levels below the renal
threshold of glucose, and hyperglycemia-mediated dehydration. There is no
role for A1C monitoring.
2. A patient with organ failure: Preventing hypoglycemia is of greatest
significance. Dehydration must be prevented and treated. In people with type 1
diabetes, insulin administration may be reduced as the oral intake of food decreases
but should not be stopped. For those with type 2 diabetes, agents that may cause
hypoglycemia should be reduced in dose. The main goal is to avoid
hypoglycemia, allowing for glucose values in the upper level of the desired
target range. | 232
OLDER ADULTS
Different patient categories have been proposed for diabetes management in those
with advanced disease (continued):
3. A dying patient: For people with type 2 diabetes, the discontinuation of all
medications may be a reasonable approach, as these individuals are
unlikely to have any oral intake. In people with type 1 diabetes, there is no
consensus, but a small amount of basal insulin may maintain glucose levels and
prevent acute hyperglycemic complications.
| 233
Section 14.
Children and
Adolescents
Children & Adolescents: Standards of Care in Diabetes - 2023. Diabetes Care | 235
2023;46(Suppl. 1): S230-S253

Children & Adolescents: Standards of Care in Diabetes - 2023. Diabetes Care | 236
2023;46(Suppl. 1): S230-S253

CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
Diabetes Self-management Education &

Support (Type 1)
14.1 Youth with type 1 diabetes and their parents/caregivers (for patients aged
<18 years) should receive culturally sensitive and developmentally
appropriate individualized diabetes self-management education and support
according to national standards at diagnosis and routinely thereafter. B
| 237
Nutrition Therapy (Type 1)

14.2 Individualized medical nutrition therapy is recommended for children and
adolescents with type 1 diabetes as an essential component of the overall
treatment plan. A
14.3 Monitoring carbohydrate intake, whether by carbohydrate counting or
experience-based estimation, is a key component to optimizing glycemic
management. B
14.4 Comprehensive nutrition education at diagnosis, with annual updates, by an
experienced registered dietitian nutritionist is recommended to assess
caloric and nutrition intake in relation to weight status and cardiovascular
disease risk factors and to inform macronutrient choices. E
| 238
Physical Activity and Exercise (Type 1)

14.5 Physical activity is recommended for all youth with type 1 diabetes with the
goal of 60 min of moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic activity daily, with
vigorous muscle-strengthening and bone-strengthening activities at least 3
days per week. C
14.6 Frequent glucose monitoring before, during, and after exercise, via blood
glucose meter or continuous glucose monitoring, is important to prevent,
detect, and treat hypoglycemia and hyperglycemia associated with exercise.
C
| 239
Physical Activity & Exercise (Type 1)(con’t)

14.7 Youth and their parents/caregivers should receive education on targets and
management of glycemia before, during, and after physical activity,
individualized according to the type and intensity of the planned physical
activity. E
14.8 Youth and their parents/caregivers should be educated on strategies to
prevent hypoglycemia during, after, and overnight following physical
activity and exercise, which may include reducing prandial insulin dosing for the
meal/snack preceding (and, if needed, following) exercise, reducing basal
insulin doses, increasing carbohydrate intake, eating bedtime snacks, and/or
using continuous glucose monitoring. Treatment for hypoglycemia should
be accessible before, during, and after engaging in activity . C
| 240
Psychosocial Issues (Type 1)

14.9 At diagnosis and during routine follow-up care, screen for psychosocial
issues and family stresses that could impact diabetes management and
provide appropriate referrals to trained mental health professionals,
preferably experienced in childhood diabetes. C
14.10 Mental health professionals should be considered integral members of the
pediatric diabetes multidisciplinary team. E
14.11 Encourage developmentally appropriate family involvement in diabetes
management tasks for children and adolescents, recognizing that premature
transfer of diabetes care responsibility to the youth can result in diabetes
burnout, suboptimal diabetes management, and deterioration in glycemia.
A
| 241
Psychosocial Issues (Type 1) (continued)

14.12 Health care professionals should screen for food security, housing
stability/homelessness, health literacy, financial barriers, and
social/community support and apply that information to treatment decisions. E
14.13 Health care professionals should consider asking youth and their
parents/caregivers about social adjustment (peer relationships) and school
performance to determine whether further intervention is needed. B
14.14 Screen youth with diabetes for psychosocial and diabetes related distress,
generally starting at 7–8 years of age. Refer to a qualified mental health
professional for further assessment and treatment if indicated. B
| 242
Psychosocial Issues (Type 1) (continued)

14.15 Offer adolescents time by themselves with their care professional(s) starting
at age 12 years, or when developmentally appropriate. E
14.16 Starting at puberty, preconception counseling should be incorporated into
routine diabetes care for all individuals of childbearing potential. A
14.17 Begin screening youth with type 1 diabetes for disordered eating between
10 and 12 years of age. Refer to a qualified mental health professional for
further assessment and treatment if indicated. B
| 243
Glycemic Monitoring, Insulin Delivery &

Targets (Type 1)
14.18 All youth with type 1 diabetes should monitor glucose levels multiple times
daily (up to 6–10 times/day by blood glucose meter or continuous glucose
monitoring), including prior to meals and snacks, at bedtime, and as needed
for safety in specific situations such as physical activity, driving, or the
presence of symptoms of hypoglycemia. B
14.19 Real-time continuous glucose monitoring B or intermittently scanned
continuous glucose monitoring E should be offered for diabetes
management in youth with diabetes on multiple daily injections or insulin pump
therapy who are capable of using the device safely (either by themselves or
with caregivers). The choice of device should be made based on the
individual’s and family’s circumstances, desires, and needs.
| 244

Targets (Type 1)
14.20 Automated insulin delivery systems should be offered for diabetes
management to youth with type 1 diabetes who are capable of using the device
safely (either by themselves or with caregivers). The choice of device should be
made based on the individual’s and family’s circumstances, desires, and
needs. A
14.21 Insulin pump therapy alone should be offered for diabetes management to
youth on multiple daily injections with type 1 diabetes who are capable of
using the device safely (either by themselves or with caregivers). The choice
of device should be made based on the individual’s and family’s
circumstances, desires, and needs. A
| 245

Targets (Type 1)
14.22 Students must be supported at school in the use of diabetes technology,
including continuous glucose monitors, insulin pumps, connected insulin
pens, and automated insulin delivery systems as prescribed by their
diabetes care team. E
14.23 A1C goals must be individualized and reassessed over time. An A1C of <7%
(53 mmol/mol) is appropriate for many children and adolescents. B
| 246
Glycemic Control (Type 1) (continued)

14.24 Less stringent A1C goals (such as <7.5% [58 mmol/mol]) may be
appropriate for youth who cannot articulate symptoms of hypoglycemia; have
hypoglycemia unawareness; lack access to analog insulins, advanced insulin
delivery technology, and/or continuous glucose monitoring; cannot check
blood glucose regularly; or have nonglycemic factors that increase A1C
(e.g., high glycators). B
14.25 Even less stringent A1C goals (such as <8% [64 mmol/mol]) may be
appropriate for individuals with a history of severe hypoglycemia, limited life
expectancy, or where the harms of treatment are greater than the benefits. B
| 247
Glycemic Control (Type 1) (continued)

14.26 Health care professionals may reasonably suggest more stringent A1C goals
(such as <6.5% [48 mmol/mol]) for selected individuals if they can be
achieved without significant hypoglycemia, negative impacts on well-being,
or undue burden of care or in those who have nonglycemic factors that
decrease A1C (e.g., lower erythrocyte life span). Lower targets may also be
appropriate during the honeymoon phase. B
14.27 Continuous glucose monitoring metrics derived from continuous glucose
monitor use over the most recent 14 days (or longer for youth with more
glycemic variability), including time in range (70–180 mg/dL), time below
target (<70 and <54 mg/dL), and time above target (>180 and >250 mg/dL),
are recommended to be used in conjunction with A1C whenever possible. E
| 248
Autoimmune Conditions
14.28 Assess for additional autoimmune conditions soon after the diagnosis of
type 1 diabetes and if symptoms develop. B
| 249
Thyroid Disease (Type 1)

14.29 Consider testing children with type 1 diabetes for antithyroid peroxidase
and antithyroglobulin antibodies soon after diagnosis. B
14.30 Measure thyroid-stimulating hormone concentrations at diagnosis when
clinically stable or soon after optimizing glycemia. If normal, suggest
rechecking every 1–2 years or sooner if the youth has positive thyroid
antibodies or develops symptoms or signs suggestive of thyroid dysfunction,
thyromegaly, an abnormal growth rate, or unexplained glycemic variability.
B
| 250
Celiac Disease (Type 1)

14.31 Screen youth with type 1 diabetes for celiac disease by measuring IgA
tissue transglutaminase (tTG) antibodies, with documentation of normal
total serum IgA levels, soon after the diagnosis of diabetes, or IgG tTG
and deamidated gliadin antibodies if IgA deficient. B
14.32 Repeat screening within 2 years of diabetes diagnosis and then again after 5
years and consider more frequent screening in children who have symptoms
or a first-degree relative with celiac disease. B
14.33 Individuals with confirmed celiac disease should be placed on a gluten-free
diet for treatment and to avoid complications; they should also have a
consultation with a dietitian nutritionist experienced in managing both
diabetes and celiac disease. B
| 251
Management of Cardiovascular Risk Factors

—Hypertension Screening (Type 1)
14.34 Blood pressure should be measured at every routine visit. In youth with
high blood pressure (blood pressure ≥90th percentile for age, sex, and
height or, in adolescents ≥13 years, blood pressure ≥120/80mmHg) on
three separate measurements, ambulatory blood pressure monitoring should
be strongly considered. B
| 252

—Hypertension Treatment (Type 1)
14.35 Treatment of elevated blood pressure (defined as 90 th to <95th percentile
for age, sex, and height or in adolescents ≥13 years, 120-129/<80 mmHg)
is lifestyle modification focused on healthy nutrition, physical activity, sleep,
and, if appropriate, weight management. C
14.36 In addition to lifestyle modification, ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor
blockers should be started for treatment of confirmed hypertension
(defined as blood pressure consistently ≥95th percentile for age, sex, and height
or, in adolescents aged ≥13 years, ≥130/80 mmHg). Due to the potential
teratogenic effects, individuals of childbearing age should receive reproductive
counseling, and ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers should be avoided
in individuals of childbearing age who are not using reliable contraception. B
| 253

—Hypertension Treatment (Type 1)
(continued)
14.37 The goal of treatment is blood pressure <90th percentile for age, sex, and
height or, in adolescents aged ≥13 years, <130/80 mmHg. C
| 254

—Dyslipidemia Screening (Type 1)
14.38 Initial lipid profile should be performed soon after diagnosis, preferably
after glycemia has improved and age is ≥2 years. If initial LDL cholesterol is
≤100 mg/dL (2.6 mmol/L), subsequent testing should be performed at 9–11
years of age. B Initial testing may be done with a nonfasting lipid level with
confirmatory testing with a fasting lipid panel.
14.39 If LDL cholesterol values are within the accepted risk level (<100 mg/dL
[2.6 mmol/L]), a lipid profile repeated every 3 years is reasonable. E
| 255

—Dyslipidemia Treatment (Type 1)
14.40 If lipids are abnormal, initial therapy should consist of optimizing glycemia and
medical nutrition therapy to limit the amount of calories from fat to 25–30% and
saturated fat to <7%, limit cholesterol to <200 mg/day, avoid trans fats, and aim for
10% calories from monounsaturated fats. A
14.41 After the age of 10 years, addition of a statin may be considered in youth with type 1
diabetes who, despite medical nutrition therapy and lifestyle changes, continue to
have LDL cholesterol >160 mg/dL (4.1 mmol/L) or LDL cholesterol >130 mg/dL (3.4
mmol/L) and one or more cardiovascular disease risk factors. E Due to the potential
counseling, and statins should be avoided in individuals of childbearing age who are
not using reliable contraception). B
14.42 The goal of therapy is an LDL cholesterol value <100 mg/dL (2.6 mmol/L).
| 256
E

—Smoking (Type 1)
14.43 Elicit a smoking history at initial and follow-up diabetes visits; discourage
smoking in youth who do not smoke and encourage smoking cessation in
those who do smoke. A
14.44 Electronic cigarette use should be discouraged. A
| 257
Microvascular Complications—Nephropathy
Screening (Type 1)
14.45 Annual screening for albuminuria with a random (morning sample preferred
to avoid effects of exercise) spot urine sample for albumin-to-creatinine
ratio should be considered at puberty or at age >10 years, whichever is
earlier, once the child has had diabetes for 5 years. B
| 258
Microvascular Complications—Nephropathy
Treatment (Type 1)
14.46 An ACE inhibitor or an angiotensin receptor blocker, titrated to
normalization of albumin excretion, may be considered when elevated urinary
albumin-to-creatinine ratio (>30 mg/g) is documented (two of three urine samples
obtained over a 6-month interval following efforts to improve glycemia and
normalize blood pressure). E Due to the potential teratogenic effects,
individuals of childbearing age should receive reproductive counseling, and
ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers should be avoided in
individuals of childbearing age who are not using reliable contraception. B
| 259
Retinopathy (Type 1)
14.47 An initial dilated and comprehensive eye examination is recommended

once youth have had type 1 diabetes for 3–5 years, provided they are aged
≥11 years or puberty has started, whichever is earlier. B
14.48 After the initial examination, repeat dilated and comprehensive eye
examination every 2 years. Less frequent examinations, every 4 years, may be
acceptable on the advice of an eyecare professional and based on risk factor
assessment, including a history of A1C <8%. B
| 260
Retinopathy (Type 1) (Continued)
eye examination when indicated. E
| 261
Microvascular Complications—Neuropathy
(Type 1)
14.50 Consider an annual comprehensive foot exam at the start of puberty or at
age ≥10 years, whichever is earlier, once the youth has had type 1 diabetes
for 5 years. The examination should include inspection, assessment of foot
pulses, pinprick, and 10-g monofilament sensation tests, testing of vibration
sensation using a 128-Hz tuning fork, and ankle reflex tests. B
| 262
Screening and Diagnosis (Type 2)

14.51 Risk-based screening for prediabetes and/or type 2 diabetes should be
considered after the onset of puberty or ≥10 years of age, whichever occurs
earlier, in youth with overweight (BMI ≥85th percentile) or obesity (BMI
≥95th percentile) and who have one or more additional risk factors for
diabetes (see Table 2.4 for evidence grading of other risk factors).
14.52 If screening is normal, repeat screening at a minimum of 3-year intervals E,
or more frequently if BMI is increasing. C
| 263
Screening and Diagnosis (Type 2) (continued)

14.53 Fasting plasma glucose, 2-h plasma glucose during a 75-g oral glucose
tolerance test, and A1C can be used to test for prediabetes or diabetes in
children and adolescents. B
14.54 Children and adolescents with overweight or obesity in whom the diagnosis
of type 2 diabetes is being considered should have a panel of pancreatic
autoantibodies tested to exclude the possibility of autoimmune type 1
diabetes. B
| 264
Management—Lifestyle Management (Type 2)

14.55 All youth with type 2 diabetes and their families should receive
comprehensive diabetes self management education and support that is
specific to youth with type 2 diabetes and is culturally appropriate. B
14.56 Youth with overweight/obesity and type 2 diabetes and their families should
be provided with developmentally and culturally appropriate comprehensive
lifestyle programs that are integrated with diabetes management to achieve 7–
10% decrease in excess weight. C
14.57 Given the necessity of long-term weight management for youth with type 2
diabetes, lifestyle intervention should be based on a chronic care model and
offered in the context of diabetes care. E
| 265
Management—Lifestyle Management (Type 2)

(continued)
14.58 Youth with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes, like all children and
adolescents, should be encouraged to participate in at least 60 min of moderate to
vigorous physical activity daily (with muscle and bone strength training at least 3
days/week) B and to decrease sedentary behavior. C
14.59 Nutrition for youth with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes, like for all
children, should focus on healthy eating patterns that emphasize consumption of
nutrient-dense, high-quality foods and decreased consumption of calorie-dense,
nutrient-poor foods, particularly sugar- added beverages. B
| 266
Management—Glycemic Targets (Type 2)

14.60 Blood glucose monitoring should be individualized, taking into
consideration the pharmacologic treatment of the patient. E
14.61 Real-time continuous glucose monitoring or intermittently scanned
continuous glucose monitoring should be offered for diabetes management in
youth with type 2 diabetes on multiple daily injections or insulin pumps who
are capable of using the device safely (either by themselves or with a caregiver). The
choice of device should be made based on an individual’s and family’s
circumstances, desires, and needs. E
14.62 Glycemic status should be assessed every 3 months. E
| 267

(continued)
14.63 A reasonable A1C target for most children and adolescents with type 2
diabetes is <7% (53 mmol/mol). More stringent A1C targets (such as <6.5%
[48 mmol/mol]) may be appropriate for selected individuals if they can be
achieved without significant hypoglycemia or other adverse effects of
treatment. Appropriate individuals might include those with a short
duration of diabetes and lesser degrees of b-cell dysfunction and individuals treated
with lifestyle or metformin only who achieve significant weight improvement. E
14.64 Less stringent A1C goals (such as 7.5% [58 mmol/mol]) may be appropriate
if there is increased risk of hypoglycemia. E
| 268

(continued)
14.65 A1C targets for individuals on insulin should be individualized, taking into
account the relatively low rates of hypoglycemia in youth-onset type 2
diabetes. E
| 269
Pharmacologic Management (Type 2)

14.66 Initiate pharmacologic therapy, in addition to behavioral counseling for
healthful nutrition and physical activity changes, at diagnosis of type 2
diabetes. A
14.67 In individuals with incidentally diagnosed or metabolically stable diabetes
(A1C <8.5% [69 mmol/mol] and asymptomatic), metformin is the initial
pharmacologic treatment of choice if renal function is normal. A
14.68 Youth with marked hyperglycemia (blood glucose ≥250 mg/dL [13.9
mmol/L], A1C ≥8.5% [69 mmol/mol]) without acidosis at diagnosis who are
symptomatic with polyuria, polydipsia, nocturia, and/or weight loss should be
treated initially with long-acting insulin while metformin is initiated and
titrated. B
| 270
Pharmacologic Management (Type 2) (continued)

14.69 In individuals with ketosis/ketoacidosis, treatment with subcutaneous or
intravenous insulin should be initiated to rapidly correct the hyperglycemia
and the metabolic derangement. Once acidosis is resolved, metformin
should be initiated while subcutaneous insulin therapy is continued. A
14.70 In individuals presenting with severe hyperglycemia (blood glucose ≥600
mg/dL [33.3 mmol/L]), consider assessment for hyperglycemic
hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome. A
14.71 If glycemic targets are no longer met with metformin (with or without basal
insulin), glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonist therapy approved for
youth with type 2 diabetes should be considered in children 10 years of age
or older if they have no past medical history or family history of medullary
thyroid carcinoma or multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. A | 271
Pharmacologic Management (Type 2) (continued)

14.72 Individuals treated with metformin, a glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor
agonist, and lon-gacting insulin who do not meet glycemic targets should be
moved to multiple daily injections with long-acting and prandial insulins or
insulin pump therapy. E
14.73 In individuals initially treated with insulin and metformin who are meeting
glucose targets based on blood glucose monitoring, insulin can be tapered
over 2–6 weeks by decreasing the insulin dose 10–30% every few days. B
14.74 Use of medications not approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
for youth with type 2 diabetes is not recommended outside of research
trials. B
| 272
OLDER ADULTS
Figure 14.1—New-
Onset Diabetes in
Youth With
Overweight or
Obesity With Clinical
Suspicion of Type 2
Diabetes
Children &
Adolescents:
Standards of Care
in Diabetes -
2023. Diabetes
Care
2023;46(Suppl.
1): S230-S253
| 273
Management—Metabolic Surgery (Type 2)

14.75 Metabolic surgery may be considered for the treatment of adolescents with
type 2 diabetes who have severe obesity (BMI >35 kg/m2) and who have
elevated A1C and/or serious comorbidities despite lifestyle and
pharmacologic intervention. A
14.76 Metabolic surgery should be performed only by an experienced surgeon
working as part of a well-organized and engaged multidisciplinary team,
including a surgeon, endocrinologist, registered dietitian nutritionist,
behavioral health specialist, and nurse. A
| 274
Prevention & Management of Diabetes

Complications—Hypertension (Type 2)
14.77 Blood pressure should be measured at every visit. In youth with high blood
pressure (blood pressure ≥90th percentile for age, sex, and height or, in
adolescents aged ≥13 years, ≥120/80 mmHg) on three separate
measurements, ambulatory blood pressure monitoring should be strongly
considered. B
14.78 Treatment of elevated blood pressure (defined as 90th to <95th percentile
for age, sex, and height or, in adolescents aged ≥13 years, 120–129/ <80
mmHg) is lifestyle modification focused on healthy nutrition, physical
activity, sleep, and, if appropriate, weight management. C
| 275
Prevention & Management of Complications—

Hypertention (Type 2) (continued)
14.79 In addition to lifestyle modification, ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor
blockers should be started for treatment of confirmed hypertension
(defined as blood pressure consistently ≥95th percentile for age, sex, and height
or, in adolescents aged ≥13 years, ≥130/80 mmHg). Due to the potential
counseling, and ACE inhibitors and angiotensin receptor blockers should be avoided
in individuals of childbearing age who are not using reliable contraception. B
14.80 The goal of treatment is blood pressure <90th percentile for age, sex, and
height or, in adolescents aged ≥13 years, <130/80 mmHg. C
| 276

Nephropathy (Type 2) (continued)
14.81 Protein intake should be at the recommended daily allowance of 0.8
g/kg/day. E
14.82 Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio should be obtained at the time of
diagnosis and annually thereafter. An elevated urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio
(>30 mg/g creatinine) should be confirmed on two of three samples. B
14.83 Estimated glomerular filtration rate should be determined at the time of
diagnosis and annually thereafter. E
| 277

14.84 In youth with diabetes and hypertension, either an ACE inhibitor or an
angiotensin receptor blocker is recommended for those with modestly
elevated urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio (30–299 mg/g creatinine) and
is strongly recommended for those with urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio
>300 mg/g creatinine and/or estimated glomerular filtration rate <60
mL/min/ 1.73 m2. E Due to the potential teratogenic effects, individuals of
childbearing age should receive reproductive counseling, and ACE inhibitors and
angiotensin receptor blockers should be avoided in individuals of childbearing age
who are not using reliable contraception. B
| 278

14.85 For those with nephropathy, continued monitoring (yearly urinary albumin-
to-creatinine ratio, estimated glomerular filtration rate, and serum
potassium) may aid in assessing engagement and detecting progression of
disease. E
14.86 Referral to nephrology is recommended in case of uncertainty of etiology,
worsening urinary albumin-to-creatinine ratio, or decrease in estimated
glomerular filtration rate. E
| 279

Neuropathy (Type 2)
14.87 Youth with type 2 diabetes should be screened for the presence of
neuropathy by foot examination at diagnosis and annually. The examination should
include inspection, assessment of foot pulses, pinprick and 10-g monofilament
sensation tests, testing of vibration sensation using a 128-Hz tuning fork, and
ankle reflex tests. C
14.88 Prevention should focus on achieving glycemic targets. C
| 280

14.89 Screening for retinopathy should be performed by dilated fundoscopy at or
soon after diagnosis and annually thereafter. C
14.90 Optimizing glycemia is recommended to decrease the risk or slow the
progression of retinopathy. B
14.91 Less frequent examination (every 2 years) may be considered if achieving
glycemic targets and a normal eye exam. C
| 281

eye examination when indicated. E
| 282

Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (Type 2)
14.93 Evaluation for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (by measuring AST and ALT)
should be done at diagnosis and annually thereafter. B
14.94 Referral to gastroenterology should be considered for persistently elevated
or worsening transaminases. B
| 283

Obstructive Sleep Apnea (Type 2)
14.95 Screening for symptoms of sleep apnea should be done at each visit, and
referral to a pediatric sleep specialist for evaluation and a polysomnogram,
if indicated, is recommended. Obstructive sleep apnea should be treated
when documented. B
| 284

Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (Type 2)
14.96 Evaluate for polycystic ovary syndrome in female adolescents with type 2
diabetes, including laboratory studies when indicated. B
14.97 Oral contraceptive pills for treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome are not
contraindicated for female individuals with type 2 diabetes. C
14.98 Metformin in addition to lifestyle modification is likely to improve the
menstrual cyclicity and hyperandrogenism in female individuals with type 2
diabetes. E
| 285

Cardiovascular Disease (Type 2)
14.99 Intensive lifestyle interventions focusing on weight loss, dyslipidemia,
hypertension, and dysglycemia are important to prevent overt
macrovascular disease in early adulthood. E
| 286

Dyslipidemia (Type 2)
14.100 Lipid screening should be performed initially after optimizing glycemia and
annually thereafter. B
14.101 Optimal goals are LDL cholesterol <100mg/dL (2.6 mmol/L), HDL
cholesterol >35 mg/dL (0.91 mmol/L), and triglycerides <150 mg/dL
(1.7mmol/L). E
14.102 If lipids are abnormal, initial therapy should consist of optimizing glycemia
and medical nutritional therapy to limit the amount of calories from fat to
25–30% and saturated fat to <7%, limit cholesterol to <200 mg/day, avoid
trans fats, and aim for 10% calories from monounsaturated fats for elevated
LDL. For elevated triglycerides, medical nutrition therapy should also focus
on decreasing simple sugar intake and increasing dietary n-3 fatty| 287 acids in

Dyslipidemia (Type 2) (continued)
14.103 If LDL cholesterol remains >130 mg/dL after 6 months of dietary
intervention, initiate therapy with statin, with a goal of LDL <100 mg/dL. Due to
the potential teratogenic effects, individuals of childbearing age should receive
reproductive counseling, and statins should be avoided in individuals of childbearing
age who are not using reliable contraception . B
14.104 If triglycerides are >400 mg/dL (4.7 mmol/L) fasting or >1,000 mg/dL (11.6
mmol/L) nonfasting, optimize glycemia and begin fibrate, with a goal of
<400 mg/dL (4.7 mmol/L) fasting to reduce risk for pancreatitis). C
| 288

Cardiac Function Testing (Type 2)
14.105 Routine screening for heart disease with electrocardiogram,
echocardiogram, or stress testing is not recommended in asymptomatic youth
with type 2 diabetes. B
| 289
Psychosocial Factors (Type 2)

14.106 Health care professionals should screen for food insecurity, housing
instability/homelessness, health literacy, financial barriers, and
social/community support and apply that information to treatment decisions. E
14.107 Use age-appropriate standardized and validated tools to screen for diabetes
distress, depressive symptoms, and mental/behavioral health in youth with
type 2 diabetes, with attention to symptoms of depression and disordered
eating, and refer to a qualified mental health professional when indicated. B
14.108 When choosing glucose-lowering or other medications for youth with
overweight or obesity and type 2 diabetes, consider medication-taking
behavior and the medications’ effect on weight. E
| 290
Psychosocial Factors (Type 2) (continued)

14.109 Starting at puberty, preconception counseling should be incorporated into
routine diabetes clinic visits for all individuals of childbearing potential
because of the adverse pregnancy outcomes in this population. A
14.110 Adolescents and young adults should be screened for tobacco, electronic
cigarettes, and alcohol use at diagnosis and regularly thereafter. C
| 291
Transition from Pediatric to Adults Care

14.111 Pediatric diabetes providers should begin to prepare youth for transition to
adult health care in early adolescence and, at the latest, at least 1 year
before the transition. E
14.112 Both pediatric and adult diabetes care providers should provide support and
resources for transitioning young adults. E
14.113 Youth with type 2 diabetes should be transferred to an adult-oriented
diabetes specialist when deemed appropriate by the young adult and health care
professional. E
| 292
Section 15.
Management of
Diabetes in
Pregnancy
MANAGEMENT OF DIABETES IN PREGNANCY
Preconception Counseling
15.1 Starting at puberty and continuing in all people with diabetes and
reproductive potential, preconception counseling should be incorporated into
routine diabetes care. A
15.2 Family planning should be discussed, and effective contraception (with
consideration of long-acting, reversible contraception) should be prescribed
and used until an individual’s treatment plan and A1C are optimized for
pregnancy. A
15.3 Preconception counseling should address the importance of achieving
glucose levels as close to normal as is safely possible, ideally A1C <6.5%
(48 mmol/mol), to reduce the risk of congenital anomalies, preeclampsia,
macrosomia, and other complications. A
| 294
Preconception Care
15.4 Individuals with preexisting diabetes who are planning a pregnancy should
ideally begin receiving care in preconception at a multidisciplinary clinic
including an endocrinologist, maternal-fetal medicine specialist, registered
dietitian nutritionist, and diabetes care and education specialist, when
available. B
15.5 In addition to focused attention on achieving glycemic targets A, standard
preconception care should be augmented with extra focus on nutrition,
diabetes education, and screening for diabetes comorbidities and
complications. B
| 295
Preconception Care (continued)

15.6 Individuals with preexisting type 1 or type 2 diabetes who are planning a
pregnancy or who have become pregnant should be counseled on the risk
of development and/or progression of diabetic retinopathy. Dilated eye
examinations should occur ideally before pregnancy or in the first trimester,
and then pregnant individuals should be monitored every trimester and for
1 year postpartum as indicated by the degree of retinopathy and as
recommended by the eye care health care professional. B
| 296
| 297
Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy:
Standards of Care in Diabetes - 2023. Diabetes Care 2023;43(Suppl. 1) S254-S266
| 298
Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy:
Standards of Care in Diabetes - 2023. Diabetes Care 2023;43(Suppl. 1) S254-S266
Glycemic Targets in Pregnancy

15.7 Fasting and postprandial blood glucose monitoring are recommended in
both gestational diabetes mellitus and preexisting diabetes in pregnancy to
achieve optimal glucose levels. Glucose targets are fasting plasma glucose
<95 mg/dL (5.3 mmol/L) and either 1-h postprandial glucose <140 mg/dL
(7.8 mmol/L) or 2-h postprandial glucose <120 mg/dL (6.7 mmol/L). Some
individuals with preexisting diabetes should also check blood glucose
preprandially. B
15.8 Due to increased red blood cell turnover, A1C is slightly lower during
pregnancy in people with and without diabetes. Ideally, the A1C target in
pregnancy is <6% (42 mmol/mol) if this can be achieved without significant
hypoglycemia, but the target may be relaxed to <7% (53 mmol/mol) if
necessary to prevent hypoglycemia. B | 299
Glycemic Targets in Pregnancy (continued)

15.9 When used in addition to pre- and postprandial blood glucose monitoring,
continuous glucose monitoring can help to achieve the A1C target in
diabetes and pregnancy. B
15.10 When used in addition to blood glucose monitoring, targeting traditional
pre- and postprandial targets, real-time continuous glucose monitoring can
reduce macrosomia and neonatal hypoglycemia in pregnancy complicated
by type 1 diabetes. B
15.11 Continuous glucose monitoring metrics may be used in addition to but
should not be used as a substitute for blood glucose monitoring to achieve
optimal pre- and postprandial glycemic targets. E
15.12 Commonly used estimated A1C and glucose management indicator
| 300
calculations should not be used in pregnancy as estimates of A1C. C
Glycemic Targets in Pregnancy (continued)

15.13 Nutrition counseling should endorse a balance of macronutrients including
nutrient-dense fruits, vegetables, legumes, whole grains, and healthy fats
with n-3 fatty acids that include nuts and seeds and fish in the eating
pattern. E
| 301
Similar to the targets recommended by ACOG (upper limits are the same as for GDM,
described below) (32), the ADA-recommended targets for pregnant people with type 1
or type 2 diabetes are as follows:
• Fasting glucose 70–95 mg/dL (3.9–5.3 mmol/L) and either
• One-hour postprandial glucose 110–140 mg/dL (6.1–7.8 mmol/L) or
• Two-hour postprandial glucose 100–120 mg/dL (5.6–6.7 mmol/L)
| 302
Selection of CGM device should be based on an individual’s circumstances,

preferences, and needs.
• Target range 63–140 mg/dL (3.5–7.8 mmol/L): TIR, goal >70%
• Time below range (<63 mg/dL [3.5 mmol/L]), goal <4%
• Time below range (<54 mg/dL [3.0 mmol/L]), goal <1%
• Time above range (>140 mg/dL [7.8 mmol/L]), goal <25%
| 303
Management of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

15.14 Lifestyle behavior change is an essential component of management of
gestational diabetes mellitus and may suffice as treatment for many
individuals. Insulin should be added if needed to achieve glycemic targets. A
15.15 Insulin is the preferred medication for treating hyperglycemia in gestational
diabetes mellitus. Metformin and glyburide should not be used as first-line
agents, as both cross the placenta to the fetus. A Other oral and noninsulin
injectable glucose-lowering medications lack long-term safety data.
15.16 Metformin, when used to treat polycystic ovary syndrome and induce
ovulation, should be discontinued by the end of the first trimester. A
15.17 Telehealth visits for pregnant people with gestational diabetes mellitus
improve outcomes compared with standard in person care. A
| 304
After diagnosis, treatment starts with medical nutrition therapy, physical activity, and
weight management, depending on pregestational weight, as outlined in the section
below on preexisting type 2 diabetes, as well as glucose monitoring aiming for the
targets recommended by the Fifth International Workshop-Conference on Gestational
Diabetes Mellitus:
• Fasting glucose <95 mg/dL (5.3 mmol/L) and either
• One-hour postprandial glucose <140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L) or
| 305
Management of Diabetes in Pregnancy
Management of Preexisting Type 1 Diabetes and

Type 2 Diabetes in Pregnancy
15.18 Insulin should be used to manage type 1 diabetes in pregnancy. A Insulin is
the preferred agent for the management of type 2 diabetes in pregnancy. B
15.19 Either multiple daily injections or insulin pump technology can be used in
pregnancy complicated by type 1 diabetes. C
| 306
Preeclampsia and Aspirin

15.20 Pregnant individuals with type 1 or type 2 diabetes should be prescribed
low-dose aspirin 100–150 mg/day starting at 12 to 16 weeks of gestation to
lower the risk of preeclampsia. E A dosage of 162 mg/day may be
acceptable E; currently, in the U.S., low-dose aspirin is available in 81-mg tablets.
A
| 307
Pregnancy and Drug Considerations

15.21 In pregnant individuals with diabetes and chronic hypertension, a blood
pressure threshold of 140/90 mmHg for initiation or titration of therapy is
associated with better pregnancy outcomes than reserving treatment for
severe hypertension, with no increase in risk of small-for-gestational age
birth weight. A There are limited data on the optimal lower limit, but
therapy should be lessened for blood pressure <90/60 mmHg. E A blood
pressure target of 110–135/85 mmHg is suggested in the interest of reducing the risk
for accelerated maternal hypertension. A
15.22 Potentially harmful medications in pregnancy (i.e., ACE inhibitors,
angiotensin receptor blockers, statins) should be stopped prior to conception and
avoided in sexually active individuals of childbearing potential who are not using
reliable contraception. B
| 308
Postpartum Care
15.23 Insulin resistance decreases dramatically immediately postpartum, and
insulin requirements need to be evaluated and adjusted as they are often
roughly half the prepregnancy requirements for the initial few days
postpartum. C
15.24 A contraceptive plan should be discussed and implemented with all people
with diabetes of reproductive potential. A
15.25 Screen individuals with a recent history of gestational diabetes mellitus at
4–12 weeks postpartum, using the 75-g oral glucose tolerance test and
clinically appropriate nonpregnancy diagnostic criteria. B
| 309
Postpartum Care (continued)

15.26 Individuals with overweight/ obesity and a history of gestational diabetes
mellitus found to have prediabetes should receive intensive lifestyle
interventions and/or metformin to prevent diabetes. A
15.27 Breastfeeding is recommended to reduce the risk of maternal type 2
diabetes and should be considered when choosing whether to breastfeed or
formula feed. B
15.28 Individuals with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus should have
lifelong screening for the development of type 2 diabetes or prediabetes
every 1–3 years. B
15.29 Individuals with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus should seek
preconception screening for diabetes and preconception care to identify
| 310
and treat hyperglycemia and prevent congenital malformations. E
Postpartum Care (continued)

15.30 Postpartum care should include psychosocial assessment and support for
self-care. E
| 311
Section 16.
Diabetes Care in
the Hospital
DIABETES CARE IN THE HOSPITAL
Hospital Care Delivery Standards

16.1 Perform an A1C test on all people with diabetes or hyperglycemia (blood
glucose >140 mg/dL [7.8 mmol/L]) admitted to the hospital if not
performed in the prior 3 months. B
16.2 Insulin should be administered using validated written or computerized
protocols that allow for predefined adjustments in the insulin dosage based
on glycemic fluctuations. B
| 313
Diabetes Care Specialists in the Hospital

16.3 When caring for hospitalized people with diabetes, consult with a
specialized diabetes or glucose management team when possible. C
| 314
Glycemic Targets in Hospitalized Adults

16.4 Insulin therapy should be initiated for the treatment of persistent
hyperglycemia starting at a threshold ≥180 mg/dL (10.0 mmol/L) (checked on two
occasions). Once insulin therapy is started, a target glucose range of 140–180 mg/dL
(7.8–10.0 mmol/L) is recommended for most critically ill and noncritically ill
patients. A
16.5 More stringent goals, such as 110–140 mg/dL (6.1–7.8 mmol/L) or 100–180
mg/dL (5.6–10.0 mmol/L), may be appropriate for selected patients and are
acceptable if they can be achieved without significant hypoglycemia. C
| 315
Glucose-lowering Treatment in Hospitalized

Patients
16.6 Basal insulin or a basal plus bolus correction insulin regimen is the preferred
treatment for noncritically ill hospitalized patients with poor oral intake or
those who are taking nothing by mouth. A
16.7 An insulin regimen with basal, prandial, and correction components is the
preferred treatment for most noncritically ill hospitalized patients with
adequate nutritional intake. A
16.8 Use of a correction or supplemental insulin without basal insulin (often
referred to as a sliding scale) in the inpatient setting is discouraged. A
| 316
Hypoglycemia
16.9 A hypoglycemia management protocol should be adopted and implemented
by each hospital or hospital system. A plan for preventing and treating
hypoglycemia should be established for each individual. Episodes of
hypoglycemia in the hospital should be documented in the medical record and
tracked for quality improvement/ quality assessment. E
16.10 Treatment regimens should be reviewed and changed as necessary to
prevent further hypoglycemia when a blood glucose value of <70 mg/dL (3.9
mmol/L) is documented. C
| 317
To reduce surgical risk in people with diabetes, some institutions have A1C cutoffs for elective surgeries, and some have developed
optimization programs to lower A1C before surgery. The following approach may be considered:
• A preoperative risk assessment should be performed for people with diabetes who are at high risk for ischemic heart disease
and those with autonomic neuropathy or renal failure.
• The A1C target for elective surgeries should be <8% (63.9 mmol/L) whenever possible.
• The target range for blood glucose in the perioperative period should be 100–180 mg/dL (5.6–10.0 mmol/L) within 4 h of the
surgery.
• Metformin should be held on the day of surgery.
• SGLT2 inhibitors must be discontinued 3–4 days before surgery.
• Hold any other oral glucose-lowering agents the morning of surgery or procedure and give half of NPH dose or 75–80% doses
of long-acting analog or insulin pump basal insulin based on the type of diabetes and clinical judgment.
• Monitor blood glucose at least every 2–4 h while the individual takes nothing by mouth and dose with short- or rapid-acting
insulin as needed.
• There are no data on the use and/or influence of glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists or ultra-long-acting insulin analogs
on glycemia in perioperative care.
| 318
Transition From the Hospital to the Ambulatory

Setting
16.11 A structured discharge plan should be tailored to the individual with
diabetes. B
| 319
The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) recommends that, at a minimum,
discharge plans include the following (continued):
Medication Reconciliation
• Home and hospital medications must be cross-checked to ensure that no chronic medications
are stopped and to ensure the safety of new and old prescriptions.
• Prescriptions for new or changed medication should be filled and reviewed with the individual
and care partners at or before discharge.
Structured Discharge Communication
• Information on medication changes, pending tests and studies, and follow-up needs must be
accurately and promptly communicated to outpatient health care professionals.
• Discharge summaries should be transmitted to the primary care clinician as soon as possible
after discharge.
• Scheduling follow-up appointments prior to discharge with people with diabetes| 320
agreeing to
the time and place increases the likelihood that they will attend.
It is recommended that the following areas of knowledge be reviewed and addressed

before hospital discharge:
• Identification of the health care professionals who will provide diabetes care after
discharge. Level of understanding related to the diabetes diagnosis, glucose
monitoring, home glucose goals, and when to call the health care professionals.
• Definition, recognition, treatment, and prevention of hyperglycemia and
hypoglycemia. Information on making healthy food choices at home and referral to
an outpatient registered dietitian nutritionist or diabetes care and education
specialist to guide individualization of the meal plan, if needed.
• When and how to take blood glucose-lowering medications, including insulin
administration.
• Sick-day management.
• Proper use and disposal of diabetes supplies, e.g., insulin pen, pen needles,
| 321
Section 17.
Diabetes
Advocacy
DIABETES ADVOCACY
Select Diabetes Advocacy Statement

• Insulin Access and Affordability
• Diabetes care in the School Setting
• Care of Young Children with Diabetes in the Child Care Setting
• Diabetes and Driving
• Diabetes and Employment
| 323
• Full version available
• Abridged version for PCPs
• Free app, with interactive
tools
• Pocket card with key figures
• Free webcast for continuing
education credit
Professional.Diabetes.org/
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Standards of Care

Hold for table 2.1

Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes: | 4

Standards of Care in Diabetes - 2023. Diabetes Care 2023;46(Suppl. 1):S19-S40

 Adequate carbohydrate intake (at least 150 g/day)

Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes

Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes (continued)

Prediabetes and Type 2 Diabetes (continued)

Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes:

Cystic Fibrosis-Related Diabetes

Posttransplantation Diabetes Mellitus

Monogenic Diabetes Syndromes

The diagnosis of monogenic diabetes should be considered in children and

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (continued)

Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (continued)

GDM diagnosis (Table 2.7) can be accomplished with either of two

Lifestyle Behavior Change for Diabetes Prevention

Lifestyle Behavior Change for Diabetes

Prevention of Vascular Disease and Mortality

Patient-Centered Care Goals

Patient-centered Collaborative Care

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities:

Use of Empowering Language

preferred over “diabetic”).

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities:

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities:

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities:

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities:

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities:

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities:

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities:

Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Comprehensive Medical Evaluation and Assessment of Comorbidities:

Diabetes and COVID-19

Diabetes and COVID-19 (continued)

Diabetes and COVID-19 (continued)

Diabetes Self-management Education and

Diabetes Self-management Education and

Diabetes Self-management Education and

Diabetes Self-management Education and

Diabetes Self-management Education and

Goals of Nutrition Therapy for Adults With Diabetes

Goals of Nutrition Therapy for Adults With

Medical Nutrition Therapy

Facilitating Positive Health Behaviors and Well-being to Improve Health Outcomes:

Medical Nutrition Therapy (continued)

Facilitating Positive Health Behaviors and Well-being to Improve Health Outcomes:

Medical Nutrition Therapy (continued)

Physical Activity (continued)

Physical Activity (continued)

Smoking Cessation: Tobacco & E-cigarettes

Supporting Positive Health Behaviors

Psychosocial Care (continued)

Referral to a Mental Health Professional

Facilitating Positive Health Behaviors and Well-being to Improve Health Outcomes:

Disordered Eating Behavior