Hygiene and Diseases

Hygiene
The word “hygiene” is derived from the Greek word “hygieinos” which means
healthful, or relating to health. Generally, we use the term hygiene to describe
the ‘practice of keeping oneself and their surroundings clean, especially to
prevent illness or the spread of disease. Good hygiene is a barrier to
many contagious diseases, including fecal-oral diseases. It plays an important
role in promoting better health and well-being.

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Origin of hygiene
• Approaches to hygiene have changed greatly over the course of
humanity. For centuries, very different forms of cleanliness were
practiced, depending on religion, nation, and culture. Progressive
discoveries were always met with resistance; there were intrigues and
important knowledge was lost again. The use of disinfectants is also
relatively new, with a history of only about 150 years.
• Back then people used to uses natural disinfectors for the cleaning
and sanitization activities
• This includes salt, baking powder , and neem leaves etc
History of hygiene
• Hygiene practices date back hundreds of thousands of years ago and
are believed to be a culturally transmitted idea. Humans are not the
only ones who keep themselves clean – animals do too. Except, their
brains don’t have anywhere near the same intellectual capacity as
humans do, so understanding where animals learned to practice
hygiene is crucial in understanding the history of hygiene.
• All animals have psychological defences that fight parasite invasions
that are both microscopic (bacteria and viruses) and macroscopic
(helminths and scabies mites). Look at our earliest common ancestors:
Earthworms. They are as old as dinosaurs and can detect and avoid
harmful bacterium in the environment.
 Hygiene definition

• Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help

to maintain health and prevent the spread of
diseases.

• Official definition of hygiene

: a science of the establishment and maintenance of
health.
• Hygiene is a science of health. Practices
conducive to maintain health and preventing
disease, primarily through cleanliness, are called
Hygiene.
Ways to maintain hygiene

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Types of hygiene

• Personal Hygiene
• Environmental Hygiene
• Domestic Hygiene
• Medical Hygiene
• Culinary Hygiene
• Community Hygiene
Personal hygiene
1. Personal hygiene
• Personal hygiene which involves the cleanliness of one’s body and clothing,
proper living habits, healthy diet, rest, and exercise, basically means
cleanliness of your body.
• Good personal hygiene means keeping all parts of the physical body clean
and healthy.
• It is an essential part of maintaining both physical and mental health. In
people who practice poor personal hygiene, the body offers a perfect
environment for the growth of germs, hence leaving it vulnerable to
infection.
IMPORTANCE Of PERSONAL HYGIENE

• Social Responsibility: Practicing good personal hygiene is not only beneficial for
oneself but also for the broader community. By preventing the spread of infections,
individuals demonstrate responsible behavior towards others, especially in shared
living spaces and public settings.
• Also, good personal hygiene is socially accepted and appreciated. People are more
inclined to engage in positive interactions with individuals who maintain cleanliness.
• Enhancing Physical Appearance: Personal hygiene contributes to a neat and
presentable physical appearance. Being well groomed can boost self-confidence and
improve social interactions.
• Mental And Emotional Well-Being: Feeling clean and fresh positively impacts
mental and emotional well-being. Good personal hygiene boosts self-esteem,
confidence and overall happiness.
Importance of Personal hygiene
• At its core, personal hygiene refers to the practices that help prevent the
transmission of infectious diseases and maintain the physical, mental and
emotional well-being of individuals. It encompasses a range of daily routines,
including hand washing, bathing, oral care, hair care, nail grooming and wearing
clean clothes. By adhering to proper personal hygiene routines, we can protect
others and ourselves from illnesses, ensuring a safer and healthier environment for
everyone
• The Importance Of Hygiene:
• The purpose and benefits of personal hygiene can be summarized as follows:
• Disease Prevention: The primary purpose of personal hygiene is to prevent the
spread of contagious diseases. Regular and proper practices, such as hand
washing, bathing and keeping living spaces clean, significantly reduce the risk of
transmission of harmful bacteria and viruses, such as those responsible for colds,
flu and gastrointestinal infections.
• Promoting Health: Personal hygiene practices contribute to overall health by
reducing the chances of falling sick. Proper personal hygiene supports a strong
immune system, which serves as the body’s natural defense against infections. A
Types of Personal Hygiene
Personal hygiene encompasses various aspects of self-care and cleanliness. Let’s explore some of the key types
of personal hygiene:
• Hand Hygiene: Hand washing is one of the most crucial personal hygiene practices. Regularly washing
hands with an anti-bacterial soap such as the liquid handwash for at least 20 seconds helps eliminate harmful
bacteria and viruses, preventing the spread of illnesses.
• Oral Hygiene: Taking care of your oral health involves brushing teeth at least twice a day, flossing regularly,
and visiting the dentist for routine check-ups. Good oral hygiene prevents dental issues like cavities, gum
diseases, and bad breath.
• Body Hygiene: Showering or bathing daily helps keep the body clean, remove sweat, dirt, and bacteria, and
prevent body Oduor. Sanitizer .can be added to the bathing water in order to feel refreshed and clean. Using
clean clothes and changing them regularly also falls under body hygiene.
• Hair Hygiene: Regularly washing and grooming hair keeps it clean, prevents dandruff, and maintains a
healthy scalp.
• Nail Hygiene: Keeping nails short and clean reduces the risk of dirt and germs getting trapped underneath,
which can lead to infections.
• Clothing And Laundry Hygiene: Wearing clean clothes and washing them regularly using sanitizer, at the
appropriate temperature helps eliminate germs and maintain personal cleanliness.
• Respiratory Hygiene: Covering the mouth and nose while coughing or sneezing can prevent the spread of
2. Environmental Hygiene
• The aim of environmental hygiene is to create safe spaces so as to prevent
diseases. In general, environmental hygiene involves disinfection activities
(to control the harmful organisms and bacteria that threaten health), rodent
control, disinfestation, and fumigation activities.
• When the environment is polluted with toxic waste through either spitting or
vomiting, the State is accountable for the respective cleaning of the
environment using companies that are in the field of environmental hygiene.
• This way, children and other people who use the same street are prevented
from falling ill due to exposure to such waste. Environmental hygiene takes
care of the health of both current and future generations.
Importance of environmental hygiene
1. Reduces risk of diseases: Over the past two years, we have seen the severe damage that
harmful microbes and pathogens (such as the coronavirus pandemic) can cause.
Environmental health awareness can prevent disease outbreaks and reduce the burden of
disease.
2. Enhances quality and length of life: When all of the criteria for human life, such as
food safety and shelter, are provided and maintained, length and quality of life increase.
3. Increases biodiversity and habitat protection
In the year 2021 alone, the US official announced the extinction of more than 20 species.
We need biodiversity for our ecosystems and animal kingdoms to thrive. By raising
environmental health awareness, we can enforce better protection for the creatures and
plants around us.
4.Limits global warming
The gradual increase of global temperatures is not something we can outrun. But there are
specific measures that we can put in place to slow it down and find solutions.
 Negative impact of poor environmental hygiene
1. Respiratory diseases
• Air-borne pollutants and toxins can filter into our lungs and cause severe respiratory diseases. Ensuring a high level of air
quality will prevent these kinds of diseases.
• And the effects or not felt evenly across the globe. In urban areas across the US, low-income neighborhoods and
communities of color experience an average of 28% more nitrogen dioxide (NO2) pollution than higher-income and
majority-white neighborhoods.
2. Increased risk of waterborne diseases
• Cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, hepatitis A, typhoid, and polio can all be transmitted by poor water and sanitation.
• Contaminated drinking water is estimated to cause 485 000 diarrhoeal deaths each year.
• People living in low-income communities are most at risk for infectious diseases, especially waterborne diseases.
3. Danger from natural disasters
• Even the healthiest environment cannot escape the occasional natural disaster. But environmental health procedures can
reduce their impact significantly.
4. Lack of nutrition
• Lack of nutrition often looks like a lack of healthy and affordable grocery stores near homes. This is called a food desert.
• Without proper access to nutrient-dense food, our bodily systems cannot function optimally. Every human has a right to
live in an environment that supports their health, not degrades it.
3. Domestic hygiene
• Domestic hygiene which involves cleanliness, the preparation of food, and ventilation,
generally means cleanliness in homes.
• Domestic hygiene practices include all the work done to keep people’s clothes, beddings,
and houses clean. These activities include washing clothes and beddings, cleaning the
toilet, sweeping and cleaning floors, and washing dishes after meals. It is important to keep
the house clean so that it remains a healthy place.
• In the case where the house and things in it are not often cleaned, dirt and moisture
accumulate, making the house ideal for the breeding of parasites, germs, and disease-
carrying animals. These germs can cause infection or sickness to the people living in the
house. Domestic hygiene insanitary entails the use of soap, proper ventilation, fresh air,
hygiene in food storage, proper waste disposal, and keeping away household pests, rats,
and insects.
Methods to maintain Domestic Hygiene
• Keep bathrooms and kitchens clean.
• Bathrooms and kitchens are a breeding ground for bacteria and a workplace environment where it’s vital to
have high levels of hygiene discipline.
• To maintain basic hygiene in your bathrooms, ensure they are well stocked with antibacterial soap, toilet
paper and hand towels. You should also remind employees using the bathroom to wash their hands and leave
the sink and cubicles clean for other staff.
• Behind the toilet: The space behind your toilet is vulnerable to grime because it’s hard to get vacuums and
mops back there. Clean this area manually with a wet brush or sponge and household cleaner. Wipe the dust
and debris with a dry brush. Dry the area with a paper towel or a soft cloth.
• Under and behind appliances and furniture: Try to clean these areas at least once a month with a partner.
When cleaning these appliances, unplug them from the wall and roll them out of the way. Clean the floors
and walls with water and cleaning solution. When cleaning behind your refrigerator, brush the coils to get
rid of any dirt that may have accumulated.
Methods to Maintain Domestic hygiene
• Above appliances and cabinets: Wipe these areas with a high reach duster that pivots at the top to
lay flat and capture the dirt. Use a stable step stool if you don’t have an extendable duster. Clean the
space with a soft cloth and a mixture of water and mild dishwashing detergent. Dry the area with a
clean cloth to prevent mold growth.
• Window blinds: If you clean your blinds one side at a time, close them and wipe each side with a
duster. You may also clean both sides at once by wrapping a microfiber cloth around the slats and
wiping them.
• Hard-to-reach corners: To reach the corners of the ceiling and around the molding, use a high reach
duster or a broom. Vacuum or sweep the floors to get rid of the dust and cobwebs you collect from
higher areas. If you can reach your crown molding, wipe it with a microfiber cloth to make sure you
collected all the dust particles.
• Door tracks: To clean the tight spaces between sliding doors and windows, remove the screens and
clean them. Use a crevice attachment on your vacuum to remove as much dirt as possible. Then,
wash the tracks with a cleaning solution and a stiff-bristled brush, rinsing with water.
• Ceiling fans: Use a microfiber duster to capture the dust and debris off your ceiling fans. If you use
a ladder or step stool to reach, have someone spot you for safety.
Medical Hygiene
Medical hygiene, also known as healthcare hygiene or healthcare-
associated hygiene, refers to the practices and measures employed to
prevent the spread of infections and maintain cleanliness in healthcare
settings. It encompasses a range of protocols and strategies aimed at
ensuring the safety of patients, healthcare workers, and visitors within
hospitals, clinics, nursing homes, and other medical facilities.
Key aspects of Medical Hygiene
Medical hygiene is of paramount importance in healthcare settings for several reasons:
•Prevention of Infections: Rigorous adherence to medical hygiene practices helps prevent the spread
of infections among patients, healthcare workers, and visitors. This significantly reduces the risk of
healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) that can lead to complications and prolonged hospital stays.
•Patient Safety: Maintaining high standards of medical hygiene ensures the safety of patients
receiving medical care. It reduces the risk of acquiring infections during hospital stays, surgeries, or
medical procedures.
•Healthcare Worker Safety: Medical hygiene protocols protect healthcare professionals by
minimizing their exposure to infectious agents, reducing the risk of occupational infections, and
ensuring a safer working environment.
•Reducing Healthcare Costs: Preventing HAIs through medical hygiene practices reduces the need
for additional treatments, extended hospital stays, and associated healthcare costs. It contributes to
more efficient healthcare delivery.
•Preserving Antibiotics' Effectiveness: Effective medical hygiene practices help limit the spread of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria, preserving the effectiveness of antibiotics and preventing the rise of
superbugs.
Culinary Hygiene
• One of the greatest risks to the health of a
population is contaminated food. It is a leading
cause of disease outbreaks and transmission.
• Food that is kept for too long contains
pathogens or toxic chemicals whereas
foodstuffs that are consumed raw, such as
vegetables and fruits, can get contaminated by
flies, dirty hands, or unclean water. Food that
has been improperly prepared can also lead to
chemical poisoning
• For instance, improperly pounded and cooked
cassava leaves may contain dangerous cyanide
levels. Therefore, to promote good health,
food should be prepared and stored properly.
Importance of Culinary Hygiene
● Use salt or vinegar for washing raw vegetables and fruits
The freshest of raw fruits and vegetables contain dirt, dust particles, sand particles, or chemical residues in them. To prevent food
contamination from such agents, make sure that you wash the raw vegetables and fruits with water mixed with salt or vinegar.
● Make sure that you use clean water for food preparation
Never compromise the quality of water for washing, mixing, and preparing food. Water with contaminants can call for various water-borne
diseases including diarrhea, dysentery, vomiting, stomach upsets, and so on. Always use clean, drinkable water for cooking.
● Keep away dried foods, grains, and powdered foods from liquids
The moisture content in liquids is detrimental for dried and powdered foods as well as grains. Growth of moulds is common in wet foods and
it is even visible to the eyes. Therefore, keep these foods in a different place where there is no chance of moisture and water absorption.
● Make sure that the food area is clean and free from insects and pests
You will often find cockroaches, insects, rodents, or even flies in kitchen cupboards, fridge corners, or dark areas of the kitchen. These pests
carry pathogens from one place to another spreading diseases along the way. Always keep the food area clean and proper so that no pests or
harmful insects are lurking anywhere.
● Cook food to an appropriate temperature for destroying pathogens
An important food hygiene practice is cooking food to a suitable temperature for destroying pathogens. When meats and eggs are not cooked
properly, it might lead to E. coli and salmonella infections. Make sure that when you cook meats like beef, pork, chicken, and sausages, cook
for a longer time till the pink traces on the flesh, joints, and bones disappear.
 Importance of culinary hygiene
• Cook thoroughly. We need to cook foods thoroughly to kill harmful germs. Use a food thermometer to ensure that food is cooked to an
appropriate temperature control requirement.
• Follow the 2-hour rule. Refrigerate leftovers in an airtight container within 2 hours of cooking. Discard any pieces that have been
standing at room temperature for an extended period.
• ● Make sure that you use clean water for food preparation
Never compromise the quality of water for washing, mixing, and preparing food. Water with contaminants can call for various water-borne
diseases including diarrhea, dysentery, vomiting, stomach upsets, and so on. Always use clean, drinkable water for cooking.
• ● Keep away dried foods, grains, and powdered foods from liquids
The moisture content in liquids is detrimental for dried and powdered foods as well as grains. Growth of molds is common in wet foods and it
is even visible to the eyes. Therefore, keep these foods in a different place where there is no chance of moisture and water absorption.
• ● Make sure that the food area is clean and free from insects and pests
You will often find cockroaches, insects, rodents, or even flies in kitchen cupboards, fridge corners, or dark areas of the kitchen. These pests
carry pathogens from one place to another spreading diseases along the way. Always keep the food area clean and proper so that no pests or
harmful insects are lurking anywhere.
• ● Cook food to an appropriate temperature for destroying pathogens
An important food hygiene practice is cooking food to a suitable temperature for destroying pathogens. When meats and eggs are not cooked
properly, it might lead to E. coli and salmonella infections. Make sure that when you cook meats like beef, pork, chicken, and sausages, cook
for a longer time till the pink traces on the flesh, joints, and bones disappear.
• ● Wash the racks and kitchen towels frequently
Kitchen racks and towels are favorite breeding grounds for bacteria, parasites, etc. as they remain wet from continuous use. Make sure that you
wash and sanitize these to keep germs and pathogens at bay. Most importantly, try sun drying the towels and napkins to remove all kinds of
disease-causing germs.
• ● Clean the kitchen counter and the kitchen floor after cooking
Wash the kitchen counter and the floor thoroughly after preparing food so that no food particles remain on the counter or the floor for
attracting cockroaches, rodents, flies,
 Impact of poor culinary hygiene
• This type of hygiene is a valuable aspect of every food business. Every year, customers are affected due to the lack of proper food hygiene
controls in some businesses, which significantly affects their way of living and the economy.
• Millions of people get ill every year from contaminated foods. WHO states that 1 in every 10 customers gets sick from eating unsafe food,
with many of them remaining to have long-term health problems.
• Some groups have an increased food safety risk, including elderly people, pregnant women, children, and people with weakened immune
systems and certain health conditions, including cancer, diabetes, infectious diseases, and autoimmune disease. Immunocompromised
people are twice as vulnerable to food poisoning than healthy individuals and will experience greater side effects from contamination.
• Contaminated water serves as a carrier for major foodborne illness-causing pathogens. Unsafe water is a common prerequisite for the
occurrence of diarrhea.
• You need at least 20 seconds of handwashing to make the process effective. Make sure to cover your nails and the spaces between your
fingers.
• Staphylococcus aureus, one of the leading causes of foodborne illnesses, is commonly transferred through cross - contamination. This
bacteria is commensal, which means it lives in some parts of our body, including the skin, ears, hands, and nose. Therefore, touching your
skin and then the food you are handling can cause cross - contamination.
• It is actually advised not to wash chicken, turkey, or any other poultry meats before cooking. Washing them will only increase the
potential of most pathogenic microorganisms to spread all over your area through the water you use.
Maintenance of work place hygiene
• Provide antibacterial wipes, sanitizer and tissues
• Provide items such as antibacterial wipes, sanitizers, and tissues to help your staff maintain a clean and
hygienic workspace. Employees are more likely to use these items if they are readily available.
• Keep your workplace clean
• Make sure your workplace is regularly cleaned. Not only does this help prevent the spread of infection, but a
presentable workplace also maintains a sense of professionalism. You might choose to implement a cleaning
schedule, with responsibilities divided between staff.
• Air Hygiene
• The hygiene of surrounding air in the organization also needs to be cleaned. Oftentimes, when you flush the
toilet with the lid open, there is a high chance that the germs might spread fast. It is said that indoor air tends
to carry more pollutants, dust, and dirt than the air outside.
• Proper ventilation in the indoor environment is critical to clear any harmful pollutants if present. One of the
best ways to ensure clean indoor air is by installing a good-quality air purifier.
• Tidy Work Desks
• Employees should ensure that their work desk is organized and has minimum clutter. Things if kept properly
organized will save time and give an overall tidy look
Community Hygiene
• Community hygiene refers to those practices that help keep and
promote the health of individuals in the community as a whole.
Community hygiene pertains to the hygiene practices that prevent or
minimize the spread of diseases in the community and in everyday life
settings, where people gather, such as social gatherings, public
transport, workplace and markets. Many of these diseases are
preventable through simple, non-medical methods, like promotion of
healthy behaviours and practices in the community.
• Only the community as a whole can undertake some health measures.
These include water source protection, proper disposal of solid waste
and excreta, wastewater drainage, hygienic animal rearing and market
hygiene.
• Individual community members also play an important role in
community hygiene and have a responsibility to their neighbors and to
the community to promote good health and a clean environment. For
example, if everyone in the village starts to keep their houses and
compounds clean, there would be no problem at all. But if one house is
dirty, then it can affect many conscientious neighbors and contribute to
the spread of diseases. Community leaders can promote cleanliness in
the home by regularly visiting village households and by imposing
laws and regulations to encourage maintenance of household hygiene.
Key Aspects of Community Hygiene
Community hygiene, also known as public or environmental hygiene, focuses on the collective health and cleanliness
of a community or a group of individuals living together in a specific area. It involves practices and measures aimed at
maintaining cleanliness, preventing diseases, and promoting the well-being of the entire community. Here are some
aspects of community hygiene:
•Sanitation: Adequate sanitation facilities, such as proper sewage systems, waste disposal methods, and access to
clean water, are fundamental for community hygiene. Ensuring clean water sources and proper waste management
systems minimizes the risk of waterborne diseases and environmental pollution.
•Waste management: Proper disposal of solid waste, recycling initiatives, and implementing measures to reduce
littering are crucial for community hygiene. Encouraging recycling and proper disposal of waste reduces
environmental pollution and prevents the spread of diseases caused by unsanitary conditions.
•Public health initiatives: Community health programs, vaccination campaigns, and education on disease prevention
are essential aspects of community hygiene. Educating the public about hygiene practices, promoting vaccination, and
conducting health screenings help prevent the spread of illnesses within the community.
•Environmental cleanliness: Maintaining clean public spaces, parks, streets, and communal areas contributes to
community hygiene. Regular cleaning, garbage collection, and upkeep of public areas promote a healthier
environment for everyone.
Key Aspects of Community Hygiene
Community hygiene, also known as public or environmental hygiene, focuses on the collective health and cleanliness
of a community or a group of individuals living together in a specific area. It involves practices and measures aimed at
maintaining cleanliness, preventing diseases, and promoting the well-being of the entire community. Here are some
aspects of community hygiene:
•Sanitation: Adequate sanitation facilities, such as proper sewage systems, waste disposal methods, and access to
clean water, are fundamental for community hygiene. Ensuring clean water sources and proper waste management
systems minimizes the risk of waterborne diseases and environmental pollution.
•Waste management: Proper disposal of solid waste, recycling initiatives, and implementing measures to reduce
littering are crucial for community hygiene. Encouraging recycling and proper disposal of waste reduces
environmental pollution and prevents the spread of diseases caused by unsanitary conditions.
•Public health initiatives: Community health programs, vaccination campaigns, and education on disease prevention
are essential aspects of community hygiene. Educating the public about hygiene practices, promoting vaccination, and
conducting health screenings help prevent the spread of illnesses within the community.
•Environmental cleanliness: Maintaining clean public spaces, parks, streets, and communal areas contributes to
community hygiene. Regular cleaning, garbage collection, and upkeep of public areas promote a healthier
environment for everyone.
Diseases
Disease, any harmful deviation from the
normal structural or functional state of an
organism, generally associated with certain
signs and symptoms and differing in
nature from physical injury. A diseased
organism commonly exhibits signs or
symptoms indicative of its abnormal state.
Thus, the normal condition of an organism
must be understood in order to recognize
the hallmarks of disease. Nevertheless, a
sharp demarcation between disease
and health is not always apparent.
Definition of Disease

• “A disease is a condition that deteriorates the normal

functioning of the cells, tissues, and organs.”
• Diseases are often thought of as medical conditions
that are characterized by their signs and symptoms.
• Any dangerous divergence from a functional or
normal state of an entity.”
Types of diseases
• Infectious diseases
• Non-infectious diseases
• Autoimmune diseases
• Degenerative diseases
• Nutritional deficiency diseases
• Environmental diseases
• Rare diseases
• Mental health disorder
Infectious diseases
Infectious diseases are disorders
caused by organisms — such as
bacteria, viruses, fungi or
parasites. Many organisms live in
and on our bodies. They're
normally harmless or even
helpful. But under certain
conditions, some organisms may
cause disease. Some infectious
diseases can be passed from
person to person.
Causes of Infectious Diseases
Infectious diseases can be caused by:
• Bacteria. These one-cell organisms are responsible for illnesses such as strep throat, urinary tract infections and
tuberculosis.
• Viruses. Even smaller than bacteria, viruses cause a multitude of diseases ranging from the common cold to AIDS.
• Fungi. Many skin diseases, such as ringworm and athlete's foot, are caused by fungi. Other types of fungi can infect your
lungs or nervous system.
• Parasites. Malaria is caused by a tiny parasite that is transmitted by a mosquito bite. Other parasites may be transmitted to
humans from animal feces.
Direct contact: An easy way to catch most infectious diseases is by coming in contact with a person or an animal with the
infection. Infectious diseases can be spread through direct contact such as:
• Person to person. Infectious diseases commonly spread through the direct transfer of bacteria, viruses or other germs from
one person to another. This can happen when an individual with the bacterium or virus touches, kisses, or coughs or
sneezes on someone who isn't infected and, in extreme circumstances, can be fatal. Handling animal waste can be
hazardous, too to infection .
• Animal to person. Being bitten or scratched by an infected animal — even a pet — can make you sick and, in
extreme circumstances, can be fatal. Handling animal waste can be hazardous, too. For example, you can get a
toxoplasmosis infection by scooping your cat's litter box.
Causes of Infectious Diseases
• Mother to unborn child. A pregnant woman may pass germs that cause infectious diseases to her unborn baby.
Some germs can pass through the placenta or through breast milk.
• Indirect contact: Disease-causing organisms also can be passed by indirect contact. Many germs can linger on an inanimate
object, such as a tabletop, doorknob or faucet handle.
• When you touch a doorknob handled by someone ill with the flu or a cold, for example, you can pick up the germs he or she
left behind. If you then touch your eyes, mouth or nose before washing your hands, you may become infected.
• Insect bites
• Some germs rely on insect carriers — such as mosquitoes, fleas, lice or ticks — to move from host to host. These carriers are
known as vectors. Mosquitoes can carry the malaria parasite or West Nile virus. Deer ticks may carry the bacterium that
causes Lyme disease.
• Disease-causing germs can also infect you through contaminated food and water. This mechanism of transmission allows
germs to be spread to many people through a single source. Escherichia coli (E. coli), for example, is a bacterium present in
or on certain foods — such as undercooked hamburger or unpasteurized fruit juice.
Prevention from infectious diseases
Follow these tips to decrease the risk of infection:
• Wash your hands. This is especially important before and after preparing food, before eating, and after
using the toilet. And try not to touch your eyes, nose or mouth with your hands, as that's a common way
germs enter the body.
• Get vaccinated. Vaccination can drastically reduce your chances of contracting many diseases. Make sure to
keep up to date on your recommended vaccinations, as well as your children's.
• Stay home when ill. Don't go to work if you are vomiting, have diarrhea or have a fever. Don't send your
child to school if he or she has these signs, either.
• Prepare food safely. Keep counters and other kitchen surfaces clean when preparing meals. Cook foods to
the proper temperature, using a food thermometer to check for doneness. For ground meats, that means at
least 160 F (71 C); for poultry, 165 F (74 C); and for most other meats, at least 145 F (63 C).
• Also promptly refrigerate leftovers — don't let cooked foods remain at room temperature for long periods of
time..
• Don't share personal items. Use your own toothbrush, comb and razor. Avoid sharing drinking glasses or
dining utensils.
• Travel wisely. If you're traveling out of the country, talk to your doctor about any special vaccinations —
such as yellow fever, cholera, hepatitis A or B, or typhoid fever — you may need.
Non-infectious /Non-communicable diseases
• Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs), also known as chronic
diseases, tend to be of long duration and are the result of a
combination of genetic, physiological, environmental and
behavioral factors.
• The main types of NCD are cardiovascular diseases (such as
heart attacks and stroke), cancers, chronic respiratory diseases
(such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma)
and diabetes.
• The four major death-causing NCDs are –
1. Cardiovascular Diseases
2. Cancer
3. Respiratory Diseases
4. Diabetes
• The NCDs may occur due to lifestyle as well as genetic
factors. Thus, some of them are also termed lifestyle diseases.
The risk factors for NCDs are mostly poor diet, lack of
exercise, inadequate sleep, smoking, alcohol consumption
and stress.
Types of non-communicable /non-infectious diseases

• Hypertension
• Cardiovascular disease
• Genetic Diseases
• Haemophilia
• Thalassemia
Hypertension
• Lifestyle diseases, like hypertension, diabetes, cancer, heart diseases, and stroke are a part of non-communicable
diseases (NCD). Mental health diseases like trauma and depression are also included under this. Various
physiological factors, along with improper diet and exercise, are a major cause of most NCDs.

Physiological Factors
• Blood Pressure
• Cholesterol
• Blood Glucose
• Hyperlipidemia
• Overweight or Obesity
Behavioral Factors
• Sedentary Lifestyle
• Unbalanced Diet
• Stress
• Tobacco and Alcohol
• People of all ages, gender and region are prone to these risk factors. In this, the behavioural factors are
modifiable with proper lifestyle changes.
Cardiovascular disease
• The term denotes a group of disorders associated with the blood vessels and heart.
Cardiovascular diseases include rheumatic heart disease, coronary heart disease, heart
failure, heart attack, stroke, etc. The main reason is the blockage of blood vessels
supplying the brain or heart. This blockage is caused due to fat deposits in the walls of
blood vessels. Heart attack and stroke are the major NCDs and are usually acute events.
Strokes are caused by blood clots or bleeding from the blood vessel.
• Most cardiovascular diseases can be prevented by healthy eating, limiting alcohol intake,
exercising, avoiding tobacco, etc. Treating high blood lipids, high blood pressure
and diabetes can also prevent cardiovascular diseases. Genetics is also a risk factor for
certain cardiac diseases.
Genetic diseases
• Genetic diseases are also NCDs that are caused
due to abnormalities in genes or chromosomes.
These errors can be either inherited or caused
by mutations. Hemophilia, thalassemia,
and muscular dystrophy are genetic diseases
that run through generations in a family.
Support and constant care are the only things
that help to manage these disorders. Some
other examples of genetic disorders are –
• Down’s Syndrome (mutation)
• Cystic Fibrosis (mutation and inherited)
• Huntington’s chorea (inherited)
Hemophilia
Hemophilia is a serious disease that is
more common in men than women. It is
a metabolic disorder associated with the
X-linked recessive gene. It is
characterized by uncontrolled bleeding,
even from slight wounds. This is
because of the lack of clot-forming
substances (thromboplastin). There is no
long term cure for hemophilia.
Thalassemia
• It is also an inherited hematologic disease.
Thalassemia is characterized by decreased
production of hemoglobin. It leads to
severe destruction of RBCs and thus leads
to anemia. It can be treated by iron
chelation, folic acid and blood
transfusions.
• Certain heart diseases, diabetes and cancer,
are caused by environmental factors as
well as gene mutations.
Non –communicable diseases – Prevention and cure

Non-communicable Diseases – Prevention and Cure

• NCDs affect the global socioeconomic balance. Thus it should be controlled by focusing on the risk
factors.
• Healthy Diet – Avoiding canned food and excessive salt can prevent hypertension. Also, taking high
fiber content helps in controlling hypertension. A healthy and balanced diet is also vital for overall
body health.
• Regular Exercise – Approximately 1.6 million global deaths are attributed to a sedentary lifestyle.
Obesity is associated with many NCDs like coronary heart disease, type 2 diabetes, asthma, stroke
and even some cancers.
• Adequate Sleep – 6 to 8 hours of sound sleep is a must for a healthy body to function. Inadequate
sleep leads to an increase in stress levels, changes in blood pressure and disturbance in the biological
cycle.
• Mental Relaxation – Meditation, exercise, and relaxation play a role in reducing anxiety and
depression. This will have a positive impact on reducing hypertension, heart attacks and diabetes in
the longer run.
Non –communicable diseases – Prevention and cure

• Avoiding tobacco and alcohol – Avoiding alcohol will have an impact on

preventing depression, chronic liver diseases and even motor vehicular
injuries. Also, both chewing and smoking tobacco contribute to cancer,
chronic lung diseases, heart diseases and strokes.
• Genetic Counselling – It is a remarkable way to detect genetic diseases in an
unborn child. Genetic counselling, along with gene therapy, is the only way to
prevent genetic disorders as most of them do not have a complete cure.
• The first step towards a cure is the management of these diseases. The
management includes screening, detecting and treating the diseases. As NCDs
are chronic, palliative care is also needed. Strengthening primary health care
will significantly reduce the deaths associated with NCDs.
Autoimmune disorder
• Your immune system protects you from disease and infection by attacking
germs that get into your body, such as viruses and bacteria. Your immune
system can tell that the germs aren't part of you, so it destroys them. If
you have an autoimmune disease, your immune system attacks the
healthy cells of your organs and tissues by mistake.
• There are more than 80 types of autoimmune diseases. They can affect
almost any part of your body. For example, alopecia areata is an
autoimmune disease of the skin that causes hair loss. Autoimmune
hepatitis affects the liver. In type 1 diabetes, the immune system attacks
the pancreas. And in rheumatoid arthritis, the immune system can attack
many parts of the body, including the joints, lungs, and eyes.
Causes of Autoimmune Disorders
•Autoimmune Reaction Mistakes: In some cases, the body might mistake its own cells or
tissues as foreign substances, leading to an immune response against them. This might be due
to molecular mimicry, where a foreign substance resembles a part of the body's cells, causing
confusion in the immune system.
•Stress: While not a direct cause, stress can exacerbate symptoms in individuals who already
have autoimmune disorders. It may not initiate the disease, but it can worsen its effects.
•Diet and Lifestyle: Some evidence suggests that diet and lifestyle factors, such as smoking,
diet high in processed foods or sugars, lack of exercise, and obesity, may contribute to the
development or exacerbation of certain autoimmune conditions.
Autoimmune disorders are complex and multifaceted, often involving a combination of these
factors. However, the precise interplay of these elements in causing autoimmune diseases can
vary widely among different individuals and different conditions. Researchers continue to study
these diseases to better understand their causes and develop more effective treatments
Prevention from Autoimmune Disorders
Preventing autoimmune diseases entirely may not be possible due to the complex nature of these
conditions, which involve a combination of genetic, environmental, and possibly other unknown factors.
However, there are some strategies that might help in reducing the risk or managing autoimmune
diseases:
•Healthy lifestyle: Maintain a balanced diet rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and
healthy fats. Regular exercise and adequate sleep are also important for overall health and immune
function.
•Avoid smoking: Smoking has been linked to an increased risk of certain autoimmune diseases, so
quitting or avoiding smoking can be beneficial.
•Manage stress: Chronic stress can impact the immune system, so finding ways to manage stress
through relaxation techniques, mindfulness, or hobbies can be helpful.
•Environmental exposure: Some environmental factors may trigger autoimmune responses in
genetically susceptible individuals. Minimize exposure to environmental toxins when possible.
•Vitamin D: Adequate levels of vitamin D might play a role in immune regulation. Some studies
suggest that maintaining sufficient vitamin D levels may help reduce the risk of certain autoimmune
diseases.
 Degenerative Diseases
• A degenerative disease is defined as
a disease characterized by the worsening condition due
to the deterioration of the function and structure of the
affected body part, thus causing disability, mortality,
and morbidity, which could be premature.
• Aging is a natural phase in life. At the organism level,
the body tends to undergo and accumulate changes over
time and these changes are usually degenerative. The
body degenerates from its former prime condition,
especially in terms of speed, efficiency, and repair.
Inopportunely, there are also instances when certain
individuals undergo degenerative changes prematurely.
• Over time, these degenerative changes lead to
symptoms and disease. Such a disease is referred to as a
degenerative disease. Many of these diseases are
associated with aging, genetics, and lifestyle choices.
Also, many of these conditions are incurable and can
only be managed to alleviate and improve symptoms.
Causes of Degenerative Diseases
Degenerative diseases refer to conditions characterized by the progressive deterioration of organs or tissues
over time. These diseases can affect various parts of the body and can have multifaceted causes. Some common
causes and factors associated with degenerative diseases include:
•Genetics: In some cases, genetic factors play a significant role in the development of degenerative diseases.
Mutations or inherited genes can predispose individuals to conditions like Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's
disease, certain types of muscular dystrophy, and some forms of Parkinson's disease.
•Age: Many degenerative diseases become more prevalent with age. Over time, cellular processes naturally
decline, leading to wear and tear on the body's tissues and organs. Conditions like osteoarthritis, where joint
cartilage wears away, are more common as people age.
•Environmental Factors: Exposure to certain environmental elements, toxins, pollutants, or harmful
substances over an extended period may contribute to the development or progression of degenerative diseases.
For instance, prolonged exposure to asbestos can cause mesothelioma, a degenerative cancer affecting the lining
of the lungs.
Causes of Degenerative Diseases
•Lifestyle Choices: Factors such as poor diet, lack of exercise, smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, and
stress can contribute to the development and progression of degenerative diseases. These lifestyle choices can
impact overall health and exacerbate conditions like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and some neurological
disorders.
•Inflammation and Chronic Conditions: Chronic inflammation in the body has been linked to various
degenerative diseases. Conditions like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), inflammatory bowel
diseases, and chronic infections can lead to ongoing inflammation that may contribute to tissue damage and
disease progression.
•Accumulation of Damaged Proteins or Cells: In some degenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, Parkinson's,
and certain types of cancers, the accumulation of abnormal proteins or damaged cells in specific tissues or
organs can contribute to the disease process.
Understanding the causes of degenerative diseases is complex, often involving a combination of genetic,
environmental, and lifestyle factors. Prevention and management strategies may focus on minimizing risk
factors, adopting a healthy lifestyle, early detection, and treatments to slow the progression of these conditions.
Ongoing research aims to further unravel the complexities of these diseases and develop more effective
therapies.
Nutritional Deficiency
Diseases

Nutritional disease, any of the nutrient-

related diseases and conditions that
cause illness in humans. They may
include deficiencies or excesses in the
diet, obesity and eating disorders, and chronic
diseases such as cardiovascular
disease, hypertension, cancer, and diabetes
mellitus. Nutritional diseases also include
developmental abnormalities that can be
prevented by diet, hereditary metabolic
disorders that respond to dietary treatment, the
interaction of foods and nutrients
with drugs, food allergies and intolerances, and
potential hazards in the food supply.
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
Prevention from Nutritional Deficiencies
Preventing nutritional deficiencies involves maintaining a balanced and varied diet that includes essential
nutrients. Here are some strategies:
•Eat a balanced diet: Consume a variety of foods from all food groups, including fruits, vegetables, whole
grains, lean proteins, dairy or dairy alternatives, and healthy fats. This ensures a broad spectrum of nutrients.
•Include nutrient-rich foods: Incorporate foods rich in vitamins, minerals, and other essential nutrients. For
instance, leafy greens for iron and folate, citrus fruits for vitamin C, fish for omega-3 fatty acids, and nuts and
seeds for magnesium and zinc.
•Consider supplementation if necessary: Some individuals may require supplements due to specific dietary
restrictions, medical conditions, or increased nutritional needs. However, it's essential to consult a healthcare
professional before starting any supplements.
•Be mindful of food preparation: Properly cooking and storing foods can help retain their nutrient content.
Avoid overcooking vegetables, as this can deplete their vitamins and minerals.
•Understand dietary needs during life stages: Pregnancy, breastfeeding, childhood, adolescence, and older
age all come with specific nutritional requirements. Be aware of these needs and adjust dietary intake
accordingly.
Prevention from Nutritional Deficiencies
•Manage underlying health conditions: Certain health conditions can interfere with nutrient absorption or
increase nutrient requirements. Managing these conditions effectively can help prevent deficiencies.
•Limit alcohol and processed foods: Excessive alcohol consumption can interfere with nutrient absorption.
Processed foods often lack essential nutrients and can contribute to imbalances in the diet.
•Seek guidance from a professional: A registered dietitian or nutritionist can offer personalized advice on
dietary choices and meal planning to ensure adequate nutrient intake.
•Stay hydrated: Water is essential for many bodily functions, including digestion and nutrient absorption.
Drinking enough water can support the body in utilizing nutrients effectively.
•Monitor nutrient levels: For individuals with specific health concerns or dietary restrictions, regular check-ups
and blood tests can help identify and address any deficiencies early on.
By prioritizing a diverse, nutrient-rich diet and being mindful of individual nutritional needs, it's possible to
significantly reduce the risk of developing nutritional deficiencies. Regular healthcare check-ups can also help
catch any deficiencies early and address them promptly.
Environmental
Diseases
Environmental diseases, also
known as environmentally
related diseases or
environmental health
conditions, are illnesses or
health issues caused or
influenced by environmental
factors. These factors can
encompass a wide range of
elements in our surroundings,
including pollutants, toxins,
infectious agents, and
physical hazards.
Common Environmental Diseases
Some common environmental diseases include:
1. Respiratory Conditions: Diseases like asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
(COPD), and lung cancer can be aggravated or caused by exposure to air pollutants such as
particulate matter, ozone, and cigarette smoke.
2. Lead Poisoning: Exposure to lead, often found in old paint, contaminated soil, water, or
certain consumer products, can lead to neurological and developmental issues, particularly in
children.
3. Waterborne Diseases: Contaminated water sources can lead to illnesses like cholera,
dysentery, giardiasis, and other gastrointestinal infections caused by bacteria, viruses, or
parasites.
4. Skin Disorders: Contact with certain chemicals, allergens, or environmental pollutants can
cause skin conditions such as dermatitis or eczema.
Common Environmental Diseases
5. Neurological Disorders: Some environmental toxins like mercury, pesticides, or
industrial chemicals can affect the nervous system, leading to conditions such as Parkinson's
disease or neurodevelopmental disorders.
6. Cancer: Prolonged exposure to environmental carcinogens like asbestos, radon, benzene,
and certain chemicals in the workplace or surrounding areas can increase the risk of various
cancers.
7. Radiation-Related Illnesses: Exposure to ionizing radiation from sources like nuclear
accidents or medical procedures can lead to radiation sickness, cell damage, and an
increased risk of cancer.
8. Vector-Borne Diseases: Environmental factors like climate change, habitat alterations,
and urbanization can affect the distribution of vectors (such as mosquitoes and ticks) and the
diseases they carry, like malaria, dengue fever, Lyme disease, and West Nile virus.