Thermal Physics

THERMAL PHYSICS
TEMPERATURE AND ZEROTH LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS
• Temperature of a body is its degree of hotness (or coldness).
• Thus temperature is a measure of how hot (or cold) a body is and
should not be confused with the amount of heat it contains
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
(LAW OF EQUILIBRIUM)
• Two objects are in thermal contact with each other if energy can be
exchanged between them due to a temperature difference.
• Thermal equilibrium is a situation in which two objects would not
exchange energy by heat or electromagnetic radiation if they were
placed in thermal contact.
• The law states that:
If objects A and B are separately in thermal equilibrium with a third
object C, then A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
THERMOMETERS AND TEMPERATURE
SCALES
• Thermometers are devices used to measure the temperature of a
system
• All thermometers are based on the principle that some physical
property of a system changes as the system’s temperature change
SCALES
• Some physical properties that change with temperature are
(1) the volume of a liquid
(2) the dimensions of a solid
(3) the pressure of a gas at constant volume
(4) the volume of a gas at constant pressure
(5) the electric resistance of a conductor
(6) the color of an object
SCALES
• A common thermometer in everyday use consists of a mass of liquid
—usually mercury or alcohol—that expands into a glass capillary tube
when heated
SCALES
TEMPERATURE SCALES
• Temperature scales are established using fixed points such as
(1) The ice point: the temperature at which pure ice can exist in
equilibrium with water at stp
(2) The steam point: the temperature at which pure water can exist in
equilibrium with its vapour at stp
(3) The triple point: is the unique temperature at which pure water,
pure ice and pure vapour can exist together in equilibrium
SI UNIT FOR TEMPERATURE
• The SI unit is the kelvin (K)
• An interval of 1K is defined as being 1/273.16 of the temperature of
triple point of water as measured on the thermodynamic scale of
temperature
SI UNIT FOR TEMPERATURE
• The triple point of water is the fixed point of the scale and is assigned
the value of 273.16K and on this basis,
- Absolute zero = 0K
- Ice point = 273.15K
- Steam point = 373.15K
• NB: Other units for temperature are degrees Celcius and Fahrenheit
READING ASSIGNMENT
• Read on the relationship of the kelvin, degrees and Fahrenheit
temperature scales. See how you can convert one from the other.
• Also look at example 19.1 on page 573
THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS AND
LIQUIDS
• Thermal expansion of a substance refers to the change of the size
(volume) of the substance due to temperature change
• We have expansion and contraction
• Thermal expansion, plays an important role in numerous engineering
applications.
• For example, thermal-expansion joints such as those in buildings,
concrete highways, railroad tracks, brick walls, and
bridges are included to compensate for dimensional changes that
occur as the temperature changes.
THERMAL EXPANSION JOINTS IN
BRIDGES AND WALLS
CAUSE OF THERMAL EXPANSION
• Thermal expansion is a consequence of the change in the average
separation between the atoms in an object.
• At ordinary temperatures, the atoms in a solid oscillate about their
equilibrium positions with an amplitude of approximately and a
frequency of approximately .
• The average spacing between the atoms is about .
• As the temperature of the solid increases, the atoms oscillate with
greater amplitudes; as a result, the average separation between them
increases.
• Consequently, the object expands.
AVARAGE COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR
EXPANSION
• Suppose an object has an initial length along some direction at some
temperature and the length changes by an amount for a change in
temperature .
• If we consider the fractional change in length per degree of
temperature change, we define the average coefficient of linear
expansion as:
AVARAGE COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR
EXPANSION
• Experiments show that is constant for small changes in temperature.
• For purposes of calculation, this equation is usually rewritten as
or as
EXAMPLE
• A segment of steel railroad track has a length of 30.000 m when the
temperature is . What is its length when the temperature is ?
Solution
READING ASSIGNMENT
• The unusual behavior of water in terms of expansion and contraction
• Read on the kinetic theory of gases
• Describe the three gas laws and experiments that can be conducted
to demonstrate them
• Read on “ideal gas” and the equation associated with it
FIRST AND SECOND LAWS OF
THERMODYNAMICS
• Thermodynamics is the study of the relationship between heat and
other forms of energy
INTERNAL ENERGY
• Internal energy is a system’s energy associated with its temperature
and its physical state (solid, liquid, gas).
• Internal energy includes
- kinetic energy of random translation, rotation, and vibration of
molecules;
- vibrational potential energy within molecules; and potential energy
between molecules.
HEAT
• Heat is the process of energy transfer across the boundary of a
system resulting from a temperature difference between the
system and its surroundings.
• The symbol Q represents the amount of energy transferred
by this process.
CALORIE
• A calorie is the amount of energy necessary to raise the temperature
of 1 g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.
• Obviously a calorie is measured in joules
HEAT CAPACITY
• The heat capacity C of any sample is the amount of energy
needed to raise the temperature of the sample by 1°C.
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
• The specific heat c of a substance is the heat capacity per
unit mass:
ENERGY REQUIRED TO CHANGE THE
TEMPERATURE OF A GIVEN MASS
• From the equation of specific heat capacity, it is clear that the energy
Q required to change the temperature of a mass m of a substance by
an amount is:
where c is the specific heat of the substance.

LATENT HEAT
• The latent heat of a substance is defined as the ratio of the energy
input to a substance to the change in mass of the higher phase
material:
ENERGY REQUIRED TO CHANGE THE
PHASE OF A SUBSTANCE
• From the above equation of latent heat, its easy to see that the
energy required to change the phase of a pure substance is:
where L is the latent heat of the substance, which depends on the

nature of the phase change and the substance, and is the change in
mass of the higher-phase material
THE FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
• The first law of thermodynamics is a specific reduction of the
conservation of energy equation and states that when a system
undergoes a change from one state to another, the change in its
internal energy is:
where Q is the energy transferred into the system by heat and W is the
work done on the system.
READING ASSIGNMENT
• Applications of first law of thermodynamics
• second law of thermodynamics
THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES
MOLECULAR MODEL OF AN IDEAL
GAS
• A structural model is a theoretical construct designed to represent a
system that cannot be observed directly because it is too large or too
small.
• An example of a system too small to observe directly is the hydrogen
atom.
• The structural model for an ideal gas is called kinetic theory.
THE STRUCTURAL MODEL OF AN
IDEAL GAS – THE KINETIC THEORY
• The structural model of an ideal gas (kinetic theory) treats an ideal
gas as a collection of molecules with the following properties:
1. Physical components:
• The gas consists of a number of identical molecules within a
container.
• The number of molecules in the gas is large.
• The average separation between them is large compared with their
dimensions.
• The molecules occupy a negligible volume in the container.
THE STRUCTURAL MODEL OF AN
IDEAL GAS – THE KINETIC THEORY
2. Behavior of the components:
• The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion, but as a whole their
motion is isotropic: any molecule can move in any direction with any
speed.
• The molecules interact only by short-range forces during elastic
collisions.
• The molecules make elastic collisions with the walls.
FORCE DUE MOLECULES OF AN IDEAL
GAS CONTAINED IN VOLUME V
• Consider a collection of N molecules of a ideal gas in a container of
volume V as shown below
• We shall first focus our attention on one of these molecules of mass
and assume it is moving so that its component of velocity in the x
direction is
• The subscript here refers to the molecule in the collection, not to an
initial value. The effects of all the molecules will then be combined
• As the molecule collides elastically with any wall, its velocity
component perpendicular to the wall is reversed because the mass of
the wall is far greater than the mass of the molecule
• When the molecule hits the wall, the impulse from the wall causes a
change in the molecule’s momentum
• Since the momentum component of the molecule is before the
collision and after the collision, the change in the component of the
momentum of the molecule is:
• Applying the impulse-momentum theorem to the molecule, we get:
where is the component of the average force the wall exerts on the
molecule during the collision and is the duration of the collision.
• For the molecule to make another collision with the same wall after
this first collision, it must travel a distance of in the direction (across
the cube and back).
• Therefore, the time interval between two collisions with the same
wall is:
• Since the average force exerted by the wall on the
molecule as:
• Now, by Newton’s third law, the x component of force exerted by the
molecule on the wall is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction:
TOTAL AVARAGE FORCE EXERTED BY
THE GAS ON THE WALL
• The total average force exerted by the gas on the wall is found by
adding the average forces exerted by the individual molecules i.e
Therefore, the constant force F on the wall due to the molecular

collisions is:
TOTAL PRESSURE EXERTERD BY AN
IDEAL GAS
• The total pressure exerted on the wall by N molecules of a volume V
of an ideal gas can be calculated by:
AVARAGE TRANSLATIONAL KINETIC
ENERGY
• The average translational kinetic energy per molecule
of a gas, , is related to the temperature T of the gas
through the expression:
READING ASSIGNMENT
• Do example 21.1 on page 631

Thermal Physics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thermal Physics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Thermal Physics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

THERMAL PHYSICS

TEMPERATURE AND ZEROTH LAW OF

where c is the specific heat of the substance.

where L is the latent heat of the substance, which depends on the

Therefore, the constant force F on the wall due to the molecular

You might also like

Pfad - The Proxy pFad of © 2024 Garber Painting. All rights reserved.