Chapter-4 (4.3.2-4.3.5)

4.3.2.
TRICKLING FILTERS
Biological Wastewater Treatment
TRICKLING FILTERS
• Non submerged fixed-film biological reactor using rock or plastic
packing over which wastewater is distributed where treatment
occurs as liquid flows over attached biofilm.
 Alternative to suspended growth

 Attached growth system
 Media is provided for Mo’s to attach and grow
 High conc. Of Mo’s (& high SRT)
Figure Photographic view of a conventional circular trickling filter with rotary

distributors 4
• Influent pipe
• Rotary distribution
• Filter bed
• Underdrain system
• Effluent pipe
Downstream a
sedimentation tank
is provided to
remove microbial
growth that sloughs
from the medium
Figure of Typical section of a conventional circular trickling filter 5

Figure of Photographic view of trickling filter with its rotary distributors

6
Principles of operation
 WW is allowed to sprinkle or trickle down over tanks of coarser filtering media,
by means of distributors.
 Aerobic bacteria form a bacterial film around the particles of the filtering
media.
→ sufficient quantity of oxygen is supplied by providing suitable ventilation
facilities in the body of the filter or through natural draft
 Organic material from the liquid is adsorbed onto the biological film or slime
layer and get degraded by aerobic microorganisms
 As the microorganisms grow and the slime layer thickness increases, oxygen is
consumed and the substrate in the wastewater is used before it can penetrate
the inner depths of the biofilm.
 Bacteria in the slime layer enter an endogenous respiration state and lose their
ability to cling to the packing surface.
 The liquid then washes the slime off the packing, and a new slime layer
starts to grow. The phenomenon of losing the slime layer is called
sloughing
 The percolating sewage is collected at the bottom of the tank through a
well designed under-drainage system.
 The effluent must be taken to the secondary sedimentation tank for
settling out the solids generated as a result of WW treatment.
Types of Trickling Filters
(1) Conventional trickling filters /standard
rate /low rate trickling filters
• wastewater is applied intermittently
with rest periods
• 80% to 90% BOD reduction
(2) High rate trickling filters
(1)Usually characterized by higher hydraulic
and organic loadings than low-rate filters
(2)same construction details, but the Advantages of recirculation:
1-Return oxygen with wastewater.
recirculation of effluent is provided
2- Return active bacteria to increase reaction
(3)Thus the incoming wastewater is diluted rate which decrease the required area for the
and TSS concentrations are reduced. increase of the allowable load.
(4)65 to 85% BOD reduction 3- Decrease the concentration of BOD on filter.
4- Achieve the plant working day by night.
5- Prevent the growth of fly around the filter.
6- Make the gravel wet at any time.
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Design of Trickling Filters
involves the design of :
 the diameter of the circular filter tank and its depth
 Filter media
 the distributors and
 under-drainage system
 Efficiency
Filter size
the filter diameter and depth is designed for average value of sewage flow.
Is based upon the values of the filter-loadings adopted for the design.
This loading on a filter can be expressed in two ways:
i) Hydraulic-loading rate:
The quantity of sewage applied per unit of surface area of the filter per day
For conventional filters ……………………..…. 22 to 44 ML/ha/day
For the high rate trickling filters ………….. 110 to 330 ML/ha/day
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ii) Organic loading rate
 Is the mass of BOD per unit volume of filtering media per day
 For conventional filters ……………………….. 900 - 2200 kg BOD/ha-m/d
 For the high rate trickling filters ………….. 6000 – 18,000 kg BOD/ha-m/d
Total flow
 Knowing the area and volume, depth & diameter can be easily determined
 The depth of the rock packing ranges from 0.9 to 2.5 m (rock fill)
 Moreover, since the rotary distributors are available indigenously only up to 60m
in length, it is desirable to keep the diameter of the filter tank up to a maximum
of 60m.
 If the required filter diameter is more than 60m, then it is better to use more
units of lesser diameter.
Filtering medias (stone used)
 consists of coarser materials like cubically broken stones, plastic packing, slag
…
 should not be easily affected by acidic WW, and should be sufficiently hard.
 Its resistance to freezing and thawing is another important property,
 A material with a specific surface area between
45 and 60 m2/m3 for rocks and
90 and 150 m2/m3 for plastic packing is normally used
 Generally may range b/n 25-75mm
 The filtering material may be placed in layers; with coarsest stone used near
the bottom, and. finer material towards the top.
 should be washed before it is placed in position to free from dust
13
Sewage distributors over filters: are two types
- Rotary distributor:
• The rotary distributor consists of a hollow vertical central column

carrying two or more radial pipes or arms, each of which contains a
number of nozzles or orifices for discharging the waste water onto the
filter media.
• All of these nozzles point in the same direction at right angles to the
arms.
• The force of the water causes the spray heads to rotate (jet action)
above the media, acting like a sprinkler and evenly distributing waste
water across the media. (can also be driven by electric motor)
• The rotary reaction is furnished by a head of 45 to 60cm.
- Spray nozzles:
• Stationary /Fixed/ Individual Spray Heads work best
for smaller areas
Under drains
Vitrified clay blocks are generally used as under-drains.
Ensures satisfactory drainage ……. Manning formula
The blocks are laid directly on the filter floor, which is sloped toward the
collection channel at 1 to 5% gradient.
The effluent channels are sized to produce a minimum velocity of 0.9 m/s
also ensure satisfactory ventilation and aeration of the filter bed
→ To allow air circulation, the under-drainage system should be designed
to flow half full
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Efficiency:
Example
Sewage flows from primary settling rank to a standard rate trickling
filter at an average rate of 5million liters per day having a BOD of
150mg/l. Determine
a. The depth and volume of the filter, assuming suitable design data
b. Also design distribution and under drainage system

Solution
Total BOD present in sewage to be treated per day
= (5*106)l/d * 150mg/l
= 750kg
• Assuming organic loading between 900 - 2200 kg BOD/ha-m/d
(conventional TF) ……….1500kg/ha-m/d , Volume of filter required,
= (750kg/d)/(1500kg/ha-m/d)
= 0.5 ha-m = 5000m3
• Assuming effective depth of filter, d = 2m;
• Surface area of filter (As) = 5000m3/2m = 2500m2
• Using circular filter; where diameter, D = 40m;
• Number of filter units required = Total area required / area of one unit
= 2500/(π/4*402) ≈ 2units …. A = 1256m2
• Check hydraulic loading

Hydraulic loading = Total flow / Area of filter
= 5000m3/d / 1256m2
= 4.0m3/m2/d = 40 ML/ha-m/d
Where, it is within 22 - 44 ML/ha/day …………….. Ok!
• Hence two units of each 40m diameter and 2m effective depth

(total depth of 2 +0.6 = 2.6) can be adopted and extra unit as a
stand by can also be constructed
Design distributors / Rotary type

• Since it should be designed at peak flow, assume a peaking factor of
2.25
• Qavg = 5Ml/d *2.25/2filters = 5.6Ml/d = 0.065m3/sec
• Since this flow is divided in to two flow units,

Qpeak one filter =0.065m3/sec , Qavg one filter =0.029m3/sec
• Assume central column (pipe) is designed for a velocity of 2m/s at

peak flow and 1m/s at average flow depending on head
requirement of the system
A = Qpeak/Vpeak = 0.065/2 = 0.0325m2
Dpipe = √(0.0325*π/4) = 0.2m , A=0.0314m2
• Check velocity at average flow;
vavg = Qavg /A = 0.029/0.0314 = 0.92m/s < 1m/s
*Reduce diameter, to 0.19m, A= 0.028 ,

vavg = 0.029*4/(3.14*0.19*0.19)
= 1.023m/s >1m/s 
• Check velocity at peak flow;

vpeak = 0.065*4/(3.14*0.19*0.19)
= 2.29m/s ≈2m/s 
Hence central column with 0.19m diameter can be used
Design of arms /rotary type

• Using reaction spray type with 4 arms (min. of 2);
Discharge per arm = 0.065/4 = 0.016m3/s
Arm length = 40m/2 – 0.5m = 19.5m
An arm of 19.5m length can be used with its size reducing from near
the central column towards the end (in 3 segments)
• The first two sections 6m each and the last one with 7.4m
40m(diam. of filter)
A3
A2
A1
7.4m 6m 6m
Arm length
Diam.=0.19m
Plan of filter tank
25
• As the area covered by each segment varies, the flow in the arms
has to be adjusted proportional to the area covered by each length
of arms
• A1, A2 and A3 are areas of the circular filter covered by each length
of arms, allowing for 0.19m diameter at the center to be used for
central column;
A1 = π(r22-r12) = (6.0952-0.0952) = 116.6m2
A2 = π(r22-r12) = (12.0952-6.0952) = 342.7m2
A3 = π(r22-r12) = (19.4952-12.0952) = 734m2
Total area = 1193.3m2

• Percentage areas served by each segment

1st A1/A = 116.6/1193.3 * 100 = 9.8%
2nd A2/A = 342.7/1193.3 * 100 = 28.7%
3rd A3/A = 734/1193.3 * 100 = 61.5%
• Full discharge will flow through the first arm, i.e., 0.016m3/s and
this will go on reducing through the second and third sections
i. Design the 1st section
Qarm1 = 0.016m3/s, and assuming the velocity through the arm as 1.2m/s, As
velocity should be more than 0.3 m/s to prevent deposition of solids
Area required for arm 1 = 0.016/1.2 = 0.0133m2
Arm diameter required, Dsegment 1 = √(0.0133*4/π ) = 0.13m = 130mm
ii. Design of 2nd section

Discharge through the 2nd section Qarm2 = (100- 9.8)% * 0.016 = 0.0144m3/s
Aarm2 = Q/v = 0.0144/1.2 = 0.012m2
Dsegment 2 = √(0.012*4/π ) = 0.124m = 124mm
iii. Design of 3rd section
Discharge through the 3rd section Qarm3 = (100- 9.8-28.7)% * 0.016 = 0.0098m3/s
Aarm3 = Q/v = 0.0098/1.2 = 0.0082m2
Dsegment 3 = √(0.0082*4/π ) = 0.102m = 102mm
Design of orifices
• Each arm section will be provided with different no. of orifices, depending
on the Q to be passed through each section.
Qorifice = Cd*A*√2gh
• Assuming 10mm orifice diameter and coefficient of discharge, Cd= 0.65,

with an assumed water head causing flow as 1.5m,
Qorifice = 0.65*π/4 *(0.01)2 * √2*9.81*1.5
= 2.768 *10-4 m3/s
• No of orifices = Total discharge on one arm /discharge through one orifice
= 0.016/(2.768*10-4)
≈ 58
Number of orifices through each segment

1st segment = 9.8/100 * 58 ≈ 6
2nd segment = 28.7/100 * 58 ≈ 17
3rd segment = 61.5/100 * 58 ≈ 35
Spacing of orifices
In the 1st segment 6 orifices in 6m length = 6/6 = 1m
In the2nd segment 17 orifices in 6m length = 6/17 = 0.353m
In the 3rd segment 35 orifices in 7.4m length = 7.4/35 = 0.211m
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= 0.8% …….Should be 1-5%

Increase velocity
The liquid flow in under-drains and collection channels should not be more
than half full for adequate air flows
• Design a one stage high rate trickling filter to

produce a BOD effluent of 50mg/l. Given the
following data:
– Influent Bod=400mg/l
– Primary sedimentation tanks with 33% efficiency
will be used before the trickling filter.
– Maximum rotating arm may range up to 35m.
• Review operational problems of activated

sludge and trickling filters
4.3.3.Rotating Biological Contactors
INFLUENT
Primary
Treatment
Pretreatment
Rotating Biological Contactors
Disinfection
Secondary
Clarifiers
Solids Handling
EFFLUENT
Rotating biological contactors (RBCs)

• Series of closely spaced circular disks made of polystyrene or polyvinyl
chloride attached to a horizontal shaft (where, Corrugation patterns
increase surface area and structural integrity)
• Are provided at standard unit sizes of approx. 3.5 m in diameter and 7.62
m in length
• The RBC unit is partially submerged (typically 40% of the diameter) in a
tank containing the wastewater
• Disc rotation slow (1-1.6 rpm)
• While the lower half is in contact with the waste water (utilization phase)
the other half will access the ambient air (aeration phase)
• Under these conditions aerobic bacteria will soon develop a microbial
film which will carry out the biological degradation of organic pollutants.
• The rotation also helps to slough off excess solids.
• Can achieve BOD reductions of 80 to 90 %
Contactors
Primary Secondary
Treatment Clarifier
Influent Effluent
Solids Removal
Advantages
• High contact surface and high effluent quality (both BOD and nutrients)
• High process stability, resistant to shock hydraulic or organic loading
• Short contact periods are required because of the large active surface
• Low space requirement
• Process is relatively silent compared to dosing pumps for aeration
• Low sludge production
Disadvantages
• Continuous electricity supply required (but uses less energy than activated
sludge processes for comparable degradation rates)
• Contact media not available at local market /high investment costs
• Must be protected against sunlight, wind and rain (especially against
freezing in cold climates)
• Requires permanent skilled technical labor for operation and maintenance
Process arrangements
FLO RBC system is divided into a series of
W Baffles independent stages or compartments by
baffles in a single basin or separate basins
arranged in series
Each Zone of Treatment is
Called a “Stage”
 The disc system can be staged in

series to obtain nearly any
detention time or degree of
removal required.
Discs
 The culture of the later stages can
be acclimated to the slowly
degraded materials.
Shaft
Individual Disc
Influent
2 Trains
5 Stages
1st Stage
Effluent
When a System Has More Than One Train, Each Zone in the System That Receives the Same
Loading is Considered One “Stage”
1. RBC Sizing :
 RBC surface area: are usually designed on the basis of hydraulic and
organic loadings derived from pilot plants and other full-scale installation
Flow Rate, m3/d
Hydraulic Loading, m /d/m =
3 2
Media Surface Area, m2
Soluble BOD Applied/Day
Organic Loading, Sol. BOD/Day/m2 =
Media Surface Area in m2
 For successful treatment, the loading rates must be within the oxygen transfer
capability of the system.
 If it exceeds ………………………Poor performance and odors problems occurs
• Empirical design approaches have also been developed for RBC systems
based on pilot-plant and full-scale plant data
• In order to predict the BOD5 removal efficiency, a second-order model
proposed by Brenner - Opatken (US EPA 1985) & modified by Grady et al
(1999)
 Tankage:
• Volume has been optimized at 0.0049 m3/m2 of disk area.
• A typical side water depth is 1.5m to accommodate a 40% submergence
of the disks.
2. Other facilities for RBC process
 principal elements of an RBC system design are the shafts and disk
materials
Shafts: Maximum shaft length is presently limited to 8.23m with 7.62m
occupied by disks
Disk material: The type of RBC disks, classified based on the total area of disks
on the shaft, are commonly termed
 Low (standard) density: with a surface area of 9300m2 per 8.23 m shaft.
normally used in the lead stage of an RBC process flow diagram
• Medium density, and
• high-density. Medium- and high-density Disk assemblies have
surface area of 11,000 to 16,700m2 per 8.23-m
shaft.
And are used typically in the middle and final
stages of an RBC system where thinner
biological growths occur.
Example on RBCs
• Given the following design conditions, develop a process design for a
staged RBC system.
4.3.4. Waste Stabilization Ponds
Waste Stabilization Pond
• Is large shallow basins enclosed by earthen embankments in which

wastewater is biologically treated by natural processes involving pond
algae and bacteria. (TSS and BOD removal)
• Pond system requires some preliminary treatment of municipal WW.

• Usually coarse screening and grit chamber is applied
50
 Advantages include:
simplicity,
low cost,
low maintenance,
low energy consumption,
robustness, and sustainability.
However, large surface areas and expert design are required.
Types of Pond
» Anaerobic Ponds: reduces the organic load in the wastewater,
remove up to 60% of the BOD
» Facultative: where further BOD is removed further 15% removed
» Maturation/aerobic pond: designed for pathogen removal
51
• Anaerobic and facultative ponds are generally designed for removal of

BOD, and
• maturation ponds for pathogen removal,
• However, some BOD removal also occurs in maturation ponds and some
pathogen removal in anaerobic and facultative ponds
• WSP commonly comprise a single series of these anaerobic, facultative
and maturation ponds or several of such series in parallel.
Pond Configurations: Configurations can include either series or parallel

operations
– the advantages of series operation is improved treatment
because of reduced short circuiting and
– the advantages of parallel configuration is that the loading
can be distributed more uniformly over a large area
– combinations of parallel & series operation can be
accomplished
 Are well-suited for low-income tropical countries where conventional

wastewater treatment cannot be achieved due to the lack of a reliable
energy source.
I. Anaerobic Ponds
 Anaerobic ponds receive such a heavy organic loading and biodegradation
in the absence of oxygen dominate.
 Pond depth is usually between 3 to 5 meters and
 In cold climates, anaerobic ponds mainly act as settling ponds, whereas
higher sewage temperatures enhance the anaerobic degradation process.
 At higher temperatures BOD is therefore more effectively removed.
55
Treatment Mechanisms
•BOD removal is the combined effect of sedimentation and biological
degradation.
•Biological degradation is due to the anaerobic degradation of complex organic
material.
•Biochemical reactions in an anaerobic pond produce hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and
other odorous compounds.
•To reduce odors, the common practice is to recirculate water from a
downstream facultative or aerated pond. This provides a thin aerobic layer at the
surface of the anaerobic pond, which prevents odors from escaping into the air.
•A cover may also be used to contain odors
•The effluent from anaerobic ponds usually requires further treatment prior to
discharge
•Typical TSS removal percentages range between 50 and 70%.
56
II. Facultative Ponds

• Are the second treatment step in a pond system.
• In facultative ponds the anaerobic pond effluent is further treated, aimed at
further BOD, nutrient and pathogen removal.
• Facultative ponds are usually 1.5 - 2.5m deep.
57
Processes In facultative ponds

•the top layer of facultative ponds is aerobic due to oxygen production by algae
and surface re-aeration; the bottom layer is anaerobic due to the absence of
oxygen.
•The three main mechanisms for BOD removal are aerobic digestion,
sedimentation and anaerobic digestion.
•Sedimentation results only in temporary storage of BOD in the sludge layer.
•This BOD (in sludge) is removed while the pond is desludged. Part of the sludge
BOD is however anaerobically transformed into methane gas.
58
Figure of BOD removal mechanisms in a facultative pond

59
3.3.5.SECONDARY CLARIFIER:
SECONDARY CLARIFIER has two purposes:

 For good quality effluent and
 To maintain adequate sludge to return to the aeration tank
• Settling phenomenon of mixed liquor in activated sludge is described as
shown
• The area needed for clarification is (from clarification point of view)
• A value of vs is determined from batch settling column test data.

• That is, by computing the slope of the hindered settling portion of the
interface height versus time curve.
• For the area needed for thickening,
• Tu can be read from the graph corresponding to Hu first drawing a tangent

from point C2
Hu can be calculated from the

desired underflow /solids conc.
 The critical concentration (C2) is determined by

 extending the tangent from the hindered and compression settling lines
to their point of intersection and
 bisecting the angle formed. The bisector intersects the subsidence curve
at C2 which is the critical concentration.
 The critical concentration controls the sludge-handling capacity of the

tank
 The at a height of
intersection of Hthe
2 tangent with depth H will yield the required
u
retention time.
*The larger of the two calculated areas is the controlling factor for design
• Design parameters for conventional secondary clarifiers from experience

• – instead of performing column test
Overflow rate (m3/m2/d) Depth (m)

Average Peak
15-35 40-50 3.5-4.5
Weir loading rate
Avoid high velocities of water at outlet which can cause carry over of
solids at outlet
Small WWTP (Q < 0.04 m3/s), weir loading < 120 m3/m•d
SOLID FLUX THEORY

• Clarifier area
Ac = Qo/V(at xo)
• Area of thickener
Qo Xo = At*Vv Xr+ At *VuXr
At = (Qo Xo – Qu Xr) /Vv Xr
At = (Qo Xo – QuXr)/Fv ……. Or …… AtFv+ AtFu = QoXo

At = QoXo/ FL
From measurement of the zone settling interface as a function of time for

different initial concentrations,
→ slope of the curves (settling velocity) vs concentration relationship.
→ Solids flux (Settling velocity*concentration) vs concentration … settling
flux (a)
→ For the different concentrations, and a given underflow velocity …
sludge return flux diagram (b)
Example 1.
Design a conventional activated sludge plant to treat domestic sewage with
diffused aeration system given the following data
• Population = 35,000
• Average sewage flow = 180l/c/d
• BOD of sewage = 220mg/l
• BOD removed in primary treatment = 30%
• Overall BOD reduction = 85%
Solution:
Requirements: dimension of aeration tank, dimension of secondary clarifier
Daily Sewage flow, Q= 180*35,000 = 6300m3/d

• BOD of sewage coming to aeration tank

So = 0.7 *220mg/l = 154mg/l
• BOD removed in activated plant
0.85 *154 = 130.9mg/l
• From table, for conventional activated sludge, F/M = 0.4 -0.3 & MLSS =
1500 – 3000
So let’s adopt F/M = 0.3 and MLSS (X) = 3000mg/l

Using
Calculate volume of aeration tank

4.3.5. Constructed wetlands
Constructed Wetlands
 Are engineered systems that have been designed and constructed
to utilize the natural processes involving
→ wetland vegetation, soils, and their associated microbial
assemblages to assist in treating wastewater.
 The pollutants removed by CWs include
→ organic materials, suspended solids, nutrients, pathogens,
heavy metals and other toxic or hazardous pollutants.
 CW’s are practical alternatives to conventional treatment of
domestic sewage, industrial and agricultural wastes, storm water
runoff, and acid mining drainage.
 Phytodegradation: plants directly

uptake contaminants into their root
structures and degrade within its
tissue
 Phytovolatization: contaminants
entered the plant biomass and
transpired through the plant leaves
 Rhizodegradation: Plants secret
substances that adds to biological
degradation associations between
plants and microbes to degrade
contaminants
 Suspended solids are retained
predominantly by filtration and
sedimentation
Addition
The major benefit of plants is the transferring of oxygen to the root zone.
→ the stalks, roots, and rhizomes penetrate the soil or support
medium, and transport oxygen deeper than it would naturally travel by
diffusion alone.
Vegetation
→ Floating,
→ submerged and
→ emerging
The emergent plants most frequently

found in WW wetlands include
→ cattails, reeds, rushes, bulrushes
and sedges.
Types of Constructed Wetlands

 Free Water Surface (FWS) system and
 Subsurface Flow (SSF) systems.
Free Water Surface (FWS) Systems
 contain areas of open water with

• → floating, submerged, or emergent plants
 consist of basins or channels, with;
 subsurface barrier to prevent seepage,
 soil or another suitable medium to support the emergent vegetation, and
 water at a relatively shallow depth.
 The shallow water depth, low flow velocity, and presence of the plant
stalks and litter regulate water flow and, especially in long, narrow
channels minimize short circuiting (better efficiency).
 The most common application for FWS CWs is for tertiary treatment of
municipal wastewater and also for storm water runoff and mine
drainage waters
SSF systems
These systems are essentially
similar to trickling filters when they
use rock media.
water flows though a porous
media such as gravels or aggregates,
in which the plants are rooted.
With an added component of Figure of Emergent macrophyte treatment
emergent plants with extensive root system with horizontal SSF
systems within the media.
There are 2 types of SSF systems:
•horizontal SSF (HSSF) and
•vertical SSF (VSSF).
• The system is particularly useful for treating septic tank effluent or grey water, landfill
leachate and other wastes that require removal of high concentrations organic materials,
suspended solids, nitrate, pathogens and other pollutants.
• The environment within the SSF bed is mostly either anoxic or anaerobic. Oxygen is supplied
by the roots of the emergent plants and is used up in the Biofilm growing directly on the
roots and rhizomes, being unlikely to penetrate very far into the water column itself. SSF
systems are good for nitrate removal (denitrification), but not for ammonia oxidation
(nitrification), since oxygen availability is the limiting step in nitrification
• The most common problem with hSSF is blockage, particularly around the inlet zone, leading
either to short circuiting, surface flow or both. This occurs because of poor hydraulic design,
insufficient flow distribution at the inlet, and inappropriate choice of porous media for the
inlet zone. Properly-designed SSF systems are very reliable
• FWS systems are very appropriate for polishing secondary and tertiary effluents, and for
providing habitat. The environment in the FWS systems is generally aerobic at, and near, the
surface, tending toward anoxic conditions near the bottom sediment. The microbial film
grows on all available plant surfaces, and is the main mechanism of pollutant removal. FWS
usually exhibits more biodiversity than does SSF systems.
Vegetation type and water column contact in constructed wetlands
Free-water surface constructed subsurface systems
wetland
Wastewater flow above ground exposed to the atmosphere and though a porous media in which plants are
to direct sunlight rooted
Sites for removing remaining solids and filter media plant roots and stem
bacteria growth/attachment
Vegetation type Can be emergent, submerged or floating plants Emergent plants are used where roots play an
important role in maintaining the permeability
of the filter
Pathogen removal UV radiation in addition to natural decay, Mainly natural die off, predation from higher
predation from higher organisms and organisms and sedimentation
sedimentation
Surface area required for same degree requires more surface Less surface area is required because porous
of treatment subsurface filter medium provides a greater
contact area for treatment activities.
Site Selection for CW

•Topography:
– Because grading and excavating represent a major cost factor,
topography is an important consideration to select an appropriate
site. Flat topography
•Soil Permeability:
– In selecting a site for FWS wetland the underlying soil permeability
must be considered.
– The most desirable soil permeability is 10-6 to 10-7 m/s.
– Highly permeable soils needs to be lined (with clay or artificial liners).
– Sandy clays and silty clay loams can be suitable when compacted.
– Sandy soils are too permeable to support wetland vegetation.
• Hydrological Factors
 Hydrological factors which can affect removal of pollutants include precipitation,
infiltration, evapo transpiration (ET) by;
 Altering detention time

 Concentrating or diluting the wastewater
• For CW, the water balance can be expressed as;
• Qi+P-ET-Qo=[dV/dt]
 Ground-water inflow and infiltration are excluded from the above equation because of
the impermeable barrier
 if the system operates at a relatively constant water depth (dV/dt = 0), the effluent flow
rate can be estimated using the above equation.
• Hydrological Factors
 Hydrological factors which can affect removal of pollutants include
precipitation, infiltration, evapo transpiration (ET) by;
 Altering detention time

 Concentrating or diluting the wastewater
• For CW, the water balance can be expressed as;
• Qi+P-ET-Qo=[dV/dt]
 Ground-water inflow and infiltration are excluded from the above equation
because of the impermeable barrier
 if the system operates at a relatively constant water depth (dV/dt = 0), the
effluent flow rate can be estimated using the above equation.
Design Approaches for Constructed Wetlands

Reed’s method ;
• first-order kinetics model is used for those pollutants that are removed
primarily by biological processes, including
→ BOD, NH4 and NO3
• separate equations for total suspended solids (TSS) and total phosphorus
(TP).
• For the removal of pathogenic organisms in constructed wetlands, he

suggests the same approach as that used for waste stabilization ponds
• For removal of BOD in constructed wetlands:
typically 0.75
•Activated sludge •Bioconversion of •Electrodeionization •Maceration (sewage) •Septic tank
systems biomass to mixed •Electrolysis •Media filter •Sequencing batch
•Advanced oxidation alcohol fuels •Expanded granular •Membrane bioreactor reactor
process •Capacitive sludge bed digestion •Membrane distillation •Sewage treatment
•Aerated lagoon deionization •Extended aeration •Membrane fouling •Supercritical water
•Aerobic granular •Carbon filtering •Facultative lagoon •Microbial fuel cell oxidation (SCWO)
reactor •Cesspit •Fenton's reagent •Nanotechnology •Thermal hydrolysis
•Aerobic granular •Chemical addition •Filtration •NERV (Natural •Treatment pond
sludge technology wastewater treatment •Fine bubble diffusers Endogenous •Trickle-bed reactor
•Aerobic granulation •Clarifier •Flocculation & Respiration Vessel) •Trickling filter
•Aerobic treatment •Coarse bubble sedimentation •Oxidation ditch •Ultrafiltration
system diffusers •Flotation process •Parallel plate oil- •Ultraviolet
•Anaerobic clarigester •Composting toilet •Forward osmosis water separator disinfection
•Anaerobic digester •Constructed wetland •Froth flotation •Photobioreactor •Upflow anaerobic
types •Cross-flow filtration •Humanure •Regenerative thermal sludge blanket
•Anaerobic digestion •Dark fermentation (composting) oxidizer digestion
•Anaerobic filter •Diffuser (sewage) •Imhoff tank •Retention basin •Vacuum evaporation
•Anaerobic lagoon •Dissolved air flotation •Induced gas flotation •Reverse osmosis •Wet oxidation
•Anammox •Dissolved gas •Ion exchange •Rotating biological
•API oil-water flotation •Lamella clarifier contactor
separator •Desalination (Inclined Plate •Sand filter
•Belt filter •Distillation Clarifier) •Screen filter
•EcocyclET systems
•Electrocoagulation
102

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4.3.2.

 Alternative to suspended growth

Figure Photographic view of a conventional circular trickling filter with rotary

Figure of Typical section of a conventional circular trickling filter 5

Figure of Photographic view of trickling filter with its rotary distributors

• The rotary distributor consists of a hollow vertical central column

b. Also design distribution and under drainage system

• Check hydraulic loading

• Hence two units of each 40m diameter and 2m effective depth

Design distributors / Rotary type

• Since this flow is divided in to two flow units,

• Assume central column (pipe) is designed for a velocity of 2m/s at

*Reduce diameter, to 0.19m, A= 0.028 ,

• Check velocity at peak flow;

Design of arms /rotary type

Discharge per arm = 0.065/4 = 0.016m3/s

Arm length = 40m/2 – 0.5m = 19.5m

Total area = 1193.3m2

• Percentage areas served by each segment

ii. Design of 2nd section

• Assuming 10mm orifice diameter and coefficient of discharge, Cd= 0.65,

Number of orifices through each segment

= 0.8% …….Should be 1-5%

• Design a one stage high rate trickling filter to

• Review operational problems of activated

Rotating Biological Contactors

Rotating biological contactors (RBCs)

 The disc system can be staged in

• Is large shallow basins enclosed by earthen embankments in which

• Pond system requires some preliminary treatment of municipal WW.

• Anaerobic and facultative ponds are generally designed for removal of

Pond Configurations: Configurations can include either series or parallel

 Are well-suited for low-income tropical countries where conventional

II. Facultative Ponds

Processes In facultative ponds

Figure of BOD removal mechanisms in a facultative pond

SECONDARY CLARIFIER has two purposes:

• The area needed for clarification is (from clarification point of view)

• A value of vs is determined from batch settling column test data.

• For the area needed for thickening,

• Tu can be read from the graph corresponding to Hu first drawing a tangent

Hu can be calculated from the

 The critical concentration (C2) is determined by

 The critical concentration controls the sludge-handling capacity of the

• Design parameters for conventional secondary clarifiers from experience

Overflow rate (m3/m2/d) Depth (m)

Weir loading rate

SOLID FLUX THEORY

At = (Qo Xo – QuXr)/Fv ……. Or …… AtFv+ AtFu = QoXo

From measurement of the zone settling interface as a function of time for

Daily Sewage flow, Q= 180*35,000 = 6300m3/d

• BOD of sewage coming to aeration tank

So let’s adopt F/M = 0.3 and MLSS (X) = 3000mg/l

Calculate volume of aeration tank

 Phytodegradation: plants directly

The emergent plants most frequently

Types of Constructed Wetlands

Free Water Surface (FWS) Systems

 contain areas of open water with