INTRODUCTION TO EARTH SCIENCE

What Is Earth Science?

 Earth science is the name for the group of sciences that deals
with Earth and its neighbors in space.

 Earth Science is the study of our planet, its changing systems,

and its position in the Universe.

– Geology means “study of Earth.” Geology is divided into physical

geology and historical geology.
– Oceanography is the study of the Earth’s oceans, as well as coastal
processes, seafloor topography, and marine life.
– Meteorology is the study of atmosphere and the processes that
produce weather and climate.
– Astronomy is the study of the universe.
 A View of Earth
 Earth can be thought of as consisting of four major
spheres: the hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and
biosphere.
 The hydrosphere is the water portion of Earth.
 The atmosphere is an envelope of gases that surrounds Earth.
 The geosphere is the layer of Earth under both the atmosphere and
the oceans. It includes the core, the mantle, and the crust.
 The biosphere is made up of all life on Earth.
The Structure of the Earth and
Plate Tectonics
 Structure of the Earth
Mantle
• The Earth is made
up of 3 main Outer core
layers: Inner core
– Core
– Mantle
– Crust
Crust
 The Crust
• This is where we live!

• The Earth’s crust is made of:

Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

- thick (10-70km) - thin (~7 km)
- buoyant (less - dense (sinks under
dense than oceanic continental crust)
crust) - young
- mostly old
What is Plate Tectonics?
• If you look at a map of the world, you may notice that some of
the continents could fit together like pieces of a puzzle.
 Plate Tectonics

• The Earth’s crust is divided into 12 major plates

which are moved in various directions.
• This plate motion causes them to collide, pull
apart, or scrape against each other.
• Each type of interaction causes a characteristic set
of Earth structures or “tectonic” features.
• The word, tectonic, refers to the deformation of
the crust as a consequence of plate interaction.
World Plates
 What are tectonic plates made of?

• Plates are made

of rigid
lithosphere.
The lithosphere is
made up of the
crust and the upper
part of the mantle.
 What lies beneath the tectonic plates?

• Below the lithosphere

(which makes up the
tectonic plates) is the
asthenosphere.
 Plate Movement
• “Plates” of lithosphere are moved around by the
underlying hot mantle convection cells
What happens at tectonic plate
boundaries?
 Three types of plate boundary
• Divergent

• Convergent

• Transform
 Divergent Boundaries

• Spreading ridges
– As plates move apart new material is erupted to fill the gap
 Iceland: An example of continental rifting
• Iceland has a divergent plate
boundary running through its
middle
 Convergent Boundaries
• There are three styles of convergent plate
boundaries
– Continent-continent collision
– Continent-oceanic crust collision
– Ocean-ocean collision
 Continent-Continent Collision
• Forms mountains, e.g. European Alps, Himalayas
Himalayas
Continent-Oceanic Crust Collision
• Called SUBDUCTION
Subduction

• Oceanic lithosphere subducts

underneath the continental
lithosphere
• Oceanic lithosphere heats and
dehydrates as it subsides
• The melt rises forming
volcanism
• E.g. The Andes
 Ocean-Ocean Plate Collision
• When two oceanic plates collide, one runs over the
other which causes it to sink into the mantle forming
a subduction zone.
• The subducting plate is bent downward to form a
very deep depression in the ocean floor called a
trench.
• The worlds deepest parts of the ocean are found
along trenches.
– E.g. The Mariana Trench is 11 km deep!
 Transform Boundaries
• Where plates slide past each other

Above: View of the San Andreas

transform fault
Volcanoes and Plate
Tectonics…

…what’s the connection?

Pacific Ring of Fire

Volcanism is
mostly
focused at
plate
margins
Volcanoes are formed by:
- Subduction - Rifting - Hotspots
Pacific Ring of Fire

Hotspot
volcanoes
 What are Hotspot Volcanoes?
• Hot mantle plumes breaching the surface in
the middle of a tectonic plate

The Hawaiian island chain are

examples of hotspot volcanoes.
Photo: Tom Pfeiffer / www.volcanodiscovery.com
 The tectonic plate moves over a fixed hotspot
forming a chain of volcanoes.

The volcanoes get younger from one end to the other.

Earthquakes and Plate
Tectonics…

…what’s the connection?

• As with volcanoes, earthquakes are not
randomly distributed over the globe

Figure showing
the distribution of
earthquakes
around the globe

• At the boundaries between plates, friction

causes them to stick together. When built up
energy causes them to break, earthquakes occur.
Where do earthquakes form?

Figure showing the tectonic setting of earthquakes

Map of Earthquake Distribution
 Plate Tectonics Summary
• The Earth is made up of 3 main layers (core, mantle, crust)
• On the surface of the Earth are tectonic plates that slowly
move around the globe
• Plates are made of crust and upper mantle (lithosphere)
• There are 2 types of plate
• There are 3 types of plate boundaries
• Volcanoes and Earthquakes are closely linked to the margins of
the tectonic plates
THE ROCK CYCLE
• A rock is any solid mass of mineral or mineral-like matter that
occurs naturally as part of our planet.

• Interactions among Earth’s water, air, and land can cause rocks
to change from one type to another. The continuous
processes that cause rocks to change make up the rock cycle.
 The Rock Cycle
 When magma cools and hardens beneath the surface or as
the result of a volcanic eruption, igneous rock forms.

 Magma is molten material that forms deep beneath Earth’s surface.

 Lava is magma that reaches the surface.
 Weathering is a process in which rocks are physically and chemically
broken down by water, air, and living things.
 Sediment is made up of weathered pieces of earth materials
 The Rock Cycle
 Eventually, sediment is compacted and cemented to form sedimentary
rock.
– Sedimentary rocks buried deep within Earth’s surface are subjected to
great pressure and high temperatures.

 Under extreme pressure and temperature conditions, sedimentary rock

will change in metamorphic rock.
 Processes driven by heat from Earth’s interior are responsible for forming
both igneous and metamorphic rocks. Weathering and the movement of
weathered materials are external processes powered by energy from the
sun and by gravity. Processes on and near Earth’s surface produce
sedimentary rocks.
 3 Types of Rocks
• There are 3 different Igneous
types of rocks:

– Igneous
– Sedimentary
– Metamorphic Metamorphic Sedimentary
 Igneous Rock
 Rocks that form when magma hardens beneath Earth’s
surface are called intrusive igneous rocks.
– The root word of igneous means “fire”.
 When lava hardens, the rocks that form are called extrusive
igneous rocks.
 Texture and composition are two characteristics used to
classify igneous rocks.
– Texture is determined by the size, shape, and the arrangement of
crystals.
– Composition is determined by the proportions of light and dark
minerals.
 Slow cooling results in the formation of large crystals.
 Rapid cooling of magma or lava results in rocks with small,
interconnected mineral grains.

 Porphyritic texture –occurs in rocks with different-size minerals that

cool at different rates.
 Granitic composition –occurs when igneous rocks contain mostly
quartz and feldspar.
 Basaltic composition –occurs when rocks contain many dark silicate
materials.
 Andesitic composition –occurs in rocks with a combination of granitic
and basaltic rocks.
 Ultramafic rocks –are composed almost entirely of dark silicate
minerals.
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Erosion involves weathering and the removal of rock. When an agent of
erosion—water, wind, ice, or gravity—loses energy, it drops the
sediments. This process is called deposition.
 Sediments form when solids settle out of a fluid, such as water or air.
 Compaction and cementation change sediments into sedimentary rock.

 Compaction –is a process that squeezes, or compacts, sediments.

 Cementation –takes place when dissolved minerals are deposited in the tiny
spaces among the sediments.
 Sedimentary Rocks
• Just like igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks can be classified
into two main groups according to the way they form.

 Clastic sedimentary rocks are made of weathered bits of rocks and

minerals.
 The size of the sediments in clastic sedimentary rocks determines their
grouping.
 Chemical sedimentary rocks form when dissolved minerals separate
from water solutions
 Sedimentary Rocks
• The many unique features of sedimentary rocks are clues to
how, when, and where the rocks formed.
– The oldest layers in sedimentary rock formations are at the bottom.
– Fossils are found in sedimentary rocks and can provide much
information about the rocks that contain them.
– Ex: Limestone, sandstone, mudstone, and chalk.
 Metamorphic Rocks
• Most metamorphic changes occur at elevated temperatures and
pressures. These conditions are found a few kilometers below
Earth’s surface and extend into the upper mantle.
– Metamorphism refers to the changes in mineral composition and
texture of a rock subjected to high temperature and pressure within
Earth.
• During contact metamorphism, hot magma moves into rock.
– This usually results in minor changes in rocks.
• Regional metamorphism results in large-scale deformation
and high grade metamorphism.
– This usually results in intense changes such as mountain building.
 Metamorphic Rocks
• The agents of metamorphism are heat, pressure, and
hydrothermal solutions.
– Hydrothermal solutions occur when hot, water-based solutions
escape from a mass of magma. The texture of metamorphic rocks can
be foliated or non-foliated.

• Foliated metamorphic rocks –have a layered or banded appearance.

• Non-foliated metamorphic rocks –do not have a banded texture and
usually contain only one mineral.

• Ex: Gneiss (from granite), Quartzsite (from sandstone), marble (from

limestone,
Metamorphic Rocks
Thank you