Chapter One

Concepts of
Scientific
1
Research
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 1.1. The Concept of Research

 Introduction

 There are two major approaches of knowing the

world:
1. Everyday experience (Non-Scientific Ways to
Acquire Knowledge) and
2. Scientific Ways to Acquire Knowledge
 3

 1. Everyday Experience as a source of

knowledge
 As we live in this world and interact with our
surrounding we may be confronted with new ideas
that may have important impact on our lives.
 We get access to this information through our
senses- the most immediate way of knowing
something. This what we call sensory knowledge.
 4

 We may also use the opinion of others as sources of

knowledge.
 We might have experienced a stimulus with our
senses but we want to check on the accuracy and
authenticity of these sensations.
 We often ask: Does this food taste delicious to
you:
 Exercise:
 Do you rely on your senses and trust the data you
collected because it has been said, ‘’seeing is
believing’’? How is reliable are your senses?
 5

 There are also other ways of knowing from our

every day experiences. These are presented below:

 a. The method of Tenacity

 It refers to the acceptance of a belief based on the
ideas that ‘’we have always known it to be this way’’.
 In other words, it represents the automatic
acceptance of the prevailing traditional beliefs and
customs in which we have been socialized.
 We accept those beliefs and customs as true without
exploring them and then behave with it.
 6

 Even when we come across evidences that contradict

our beliefs, we still tend to cling (adhere) to our
traditional belief.
 This method has two problems:
 1. The information may gain wide acceptance through
its familiarity alone
 2. It offers no means for correcting erroneous ideas
 For example, in some cultures Female genital Cutting
(FGC) is an accepted practice.
 7

 b. The method of Authority

 Ifwe enter in to a new culture, we ask someone in that
culture who is supposed to have a knowledge- an
authority figure. We may then accept a new idea or
information stated by this figure.
 Remember that the authority may be incorrect and
may lead to wrong directions. As a result it is
important to check the validity of knowledge of the
authority.
 Exercise: Is there a problem if we unquestioningly
accept the knowledge and expertise of others?
 8

 c. The prior method

 In this method first we develop general knowledge,
opinion, or belief about the world through the
aforementioned methods or personal observations
of things around us and then we draw new and
specific conclusion from the general knowledge. As a
result it is also known as a deductive reasoning.
 Reason and logic are the basic tools of a prior method
and often take the form of a logical syllogism such as All
men are tall; Alemu is a man; Therefore, Alemu is
tall. Hence, logical conclusions may not necessarily lead
to correct conclusions.
 Exercise: Draw your syllogistic conclusion. Ethiopia has the
best long distance runners in the world. Alemu is an
Ethiopian.
 9

 d. Common sense
 Is based on our own past experiences and our
perceptions of the world.
 It originates from our day to day practical
experiences and in turn guides our daily
interaction with our surrounding.
 It may help us to deal with routine aspects of daily
life.
 Note that our perception of the world may be quite
limited or may be seriously misleading.
 It may prevent us from understanding new ideas.
 Weaknesses of non-scientific approaches
 It is difficult, if not impossible to resolve
conflicts
 Which does not facilitate progress
 Knowledge derived tends to be space-
specific, source-specific, time-bound, not
universal, and highly perishable.
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 2. Science
 Is a body of systematized knowledge.
 In this method, ideas are evaluated and corrected
through dispassionately(analytically) observing the
means of senses or measuring devices- in this case
science can been seen as a systematic and controlled
extension of common senses- and using reason to
compare various theoretical conceptualization based on
experience- which represents a direct application of
the principle of logic.
 The scientific method of knowing is the scientific
research, and its goal is the discovery of regularities of
nature and their representation in theories from which
predictions can be made
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 Scientific methods:
 Find general rules
 Collect objective evidences
 Make testable statements
 Adopt a skeptical (unconvinced) attitude about all
claims
 Are creative
 Are public, and
 Are productive
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 It follows the following logical steps:

 Defining the problem
 Making tentative explanations
 Gathering information
 Testing the validity of the hypotheses
 Making conclusions as to whether the hypothesis can
be accepted or rejected
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 Limitations of the method:

1. Cannot answer all questions

2. Its application can never capture the full richness
of the individual and the environment
3. The measurement devices always have some
degree of error
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 Definitions of Research
 Research is one concept which has several
definitions depending upon the needs and interests
of the individual concerned.
 But the following definitions seem to capture the
essence of research in terms of the objectives of this
course.
 Research is an organized and systematic way of finding
answers to questions.
 Research is seeking through methodical processes to
add to the body of knowledge by the discovery of none
trivial facts and insights – it is a foray into the
philosophy of knowledge. (Cooper & Schindler, 2006)
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 Research consists of an investigation that:

 seeks answers to a question
 systematically uses a predefined set of procedures
to answer the question
 collects evidence
 produces findings that were not determined in
advance
 produces findings that are applicable beyond the
immediate boundaries of the study
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 Research is the scientific way of knowing things and a

scientific research is:
 Systematic: so ordered, planned, and disciplined
(closely controlled);
 Controlled: the researcher can have confidence in
his/her research outcomes;
 Empirical: putting beliefs, ideas, or assumptions to
a test;
 Critical: many truths are tentative and are subject to
change as a result of subsequent research.
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 Importance of research
 “Allprogress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than
overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to
invention” is a famous Hudson Maxim in context of which
the significance of research can well be understood.
Increased amounts of research make progress possible.
 Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes
the development of logical habits of thinking and organisation.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our
economic system.
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational
and planning problems of business and industry.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social
relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.
 19

 In addition to what has been stated above, the

significance of research can also be understood keeping in
view the following points:
a. To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D.
thesis, research may mean a careerism or a way to
attain a high position in the social structure;
b. To professionals in research methodology, research
may mean a source of livelihood;
c. To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the
outlet for new ideas and insights;
d. To literary men and women, research may mean the
development of new styles and creative work;
e. To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the
generalisations of new theories.
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 Motivation for research

 What makes people to undertake research? This is a
question of fundamental importance.
 The possible motives for doing research may be either
one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates
research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
 21

 However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors

motivating people to undertake research studies.
 Many more factors such as:
 directives of government,
 employment conditions,
 curiosity about new things,
 desire to understand causal relationships,
 social thinking and awakening, and the like may as
well motivate (or at times compel) people to
perform research operations.
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 Characteristics of good research

 1. Purpose clearly defined:

 The purpose of the business research-the problem
involved or the decision to be made-should be clearly
defined and sharply delineated in terms as
unambiguous as possible.
 The statement of the decision problem should include
its scope, its limitations and the precise meanings of all
words and terms significant to the research.
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 Failure of the researcher to do this adequately may

raise legitimate doubts in the minds of research report
readers as to whether the researcher has sufficient
understanding of the problem to make a sound
proposal attacking it.
 This characteristic is comparable to developing a
strategic plan for achieving an objective before
developing a tactical plan or an action map.
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2. Research process detailed:

 The research procedures used should be described in
sufficient detail to permit another researcher to
repeat the research.
 Except when secrecy is imposed, research reports
should reveal with candor (openness) the sources of
data and the means by which they were obtained.
 25

 Omission of significant procedural details makes it

difficult or impossible to estimate the validity and
reliability of the data and justifiably weakens the
confidence of the reader in the research itself as well
as any recommendations based on the research.
 This characteristic is comparable to developing a
tactical plan.
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3. Research design thoroughly planned:

• The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as objectives
as possible.
• When a sampling of the population is involved, the
report should include evidence concerning the degree
of representativeness of the sample.
• A survey of opinions or recollections ought not to be
used when more reliable evidence is available from
documentary sources or by direct observation.
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 Bibliographic searches should be a thorough and

complete as possible. Experiments should have
satisfactory controls.
 Direct observations should be recorded in writing in
as soon as possible after the event.
 Efforts should be made to minimize the influence of
personal bias in selecting and recording data.
 This characteristic is comparable to developing
detailed action plans for each tactic.
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4. High ethical standards applied:

 Researchers often work independently and have
significant latitude (autonomy) in designing and
executing research projects.
 Careful consideration must be given to those
research situations in which there is a possibility of
physical or psychological harm, exploitation, invasion
of privacy, and/or loss of dignity.
 The research need must be weighted against the
potential for adverse effects.
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5. Limitations frankly reveled:

• The researcher should report, with complete
frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effect on the findings.
• There are very few perfect research designs.
• Some of the imperfections may have little effect on
the validity and reliability of the data; others may
invalidate them entirely.
• A competent researcher should be sensitive to the
effects of imperfect design. The researcher’s
experience in analyzing data should provide a basis
for estimating the influence of design flaws.
• As a decision maker, you should question the value of
research where no limitations are reported.
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6. Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs:
• Analysis of the data should be extensive enough to reveal its
significance, what managers call “insights.”
• The methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
• The extent to which this criterion is met is frequently a good measure
of the competence of the researcher.
• Adequate analysis of the data is the most difficult phase of the research
for the novice.
• The validity and reliability of data should be checked carefully.
• The data should be classified in ways that assist the researcher in
reaching pertinent conclusions and clearly reveal the findings that
have led to those conclusions.
• When statistical methods are used, the probability of error should be
estimated and the criteria for statistical significance applied.
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7. Findings presented unambiguously:

 Generalizations that outrun (escape) the evidence on
which they are based, exaggerations, and unnecessary
verbiage tend to be leave an unfavorable impression.
 Such reports are not valuable to managers for an
organizational decision making.
 Presentation of data should be comprehensive, easily
understood by the decision maker, organized so that
the decision maker can readily locate critical findings.
 32

8. Conclusions justified:
• Conclusions should be limited to those for which the
data provide an adequate basis.
• Researchers also may be tempted to rely too heavily
on data collected in a prior study and use it in the
interpretation of a new study. Such practice
sometimes occurs among research specialists who
confine their work to clients in a small industry. These
actions tend to decrease the objectivity of the research
and weaken reader’s confidence in the findings.
• Good researchers always specify the conditions under
which their conclusions seem to be valid.
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9. Researcher’s experience reflected:

• Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the
researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in
research, and is a person of integrity.
• Were it possible for the reader of a research report to
obtain sufficient information about the researcher, this
criterion perhaps would be one of the best bases for
judging the degree of confidence a piece of research
warrants and the value of any decision based upon it.
• For this reason the research report should contain
information about the qualifications of the researcher.
The following table summarizes some of the features of good and bad research

Not so Good” Research “Good” Research

“Not so good” research is full of inaccurate data “Good” research uses systematic procedures to
and inaccurate conclusions. This may be due to collect and analyze data, which may include:
the following reasons:  The researcher is open to new and
 The researcher’s is unwilling to consider unexpected findings.
evidence that contradicts her personal  The researcher uses a predefined set of
opinions. procedures.
 The researcher uses inconsistent procedures  The researcher uses sampling techniques
with different participants or in different which ensure different people are
situations. represented.
 The researcher’s sampling does not ensure  The researcher uses different methods of
that different people are represented. data collection to see if they give the same
 The researcher’s method of data collection answers (this is called “triangulation of
leads to a particular type of answer. (A bias data”).
in the method.)  The researcher records the data and keeps it
 The researcher does not record and in a safe and secure place.
maintain the data properly.
“Not so good” research does not follow “Good” research follows ethical
ethical guidelines. guidelines.
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 Classification of Research

 Bases of Classifications
 Research can be classified in terms of:

I. Goal of research
II. Specific objectives of research
III. Approach of research
IV. Designs
V. The type of data used in research
VI. Field of study
 36

• I. Classification of research based on the goal of

research
• The goal of research is problem solving. The nature
of problem that the research attempt to solve could
be theoretical or practical – building a theory or
solving immediate practical problems.
• These two types of problems that the research tries
to solve leads to two broad classification of
research:
a. Basic research, and
b. Applied research
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• II. Classification of research based on the specific

objectives of research
• Research also addresses specific purposes. Your
interest could be describing phenomena of
interest or explaining causal link between two
variables. Or you may be interested in comparing
two or more group on the basis of particular
phenomena.
• According to the specific objectives research can be
classified as:
a. Experimental
b. Quasi-experimental
c. Non-experimental
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• III. Classification of research based on type of

data
• Depending of the type of data generated and used
research can be classified primary research (also
called field research) and secondary research (also
known as desk research).
• Primary research involves collection of data that
does not already exist whereas secondary research
involves the summary, collection and/or synthesis
of existing data rather than generating primary
data, where data are collected from, for example,
research subjects or experiments.
 39

• IV. Classification of research based on field of

study
• Research can also be classified based on field of
study.
• Therefore, there are:
 Natural science research
 Social science research
 Educational research
 Behavioral science research
 Health science research, etc
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 Basic and Applied Research

 Basic research:
 It also called fundamental or pure research, has as
its primary objectives the advancement of knowledge
and the theoretical understanding of the relations
among variables.
 Its major aim includes:
 Obtaining and using empirical data to formulate,
expand, or evaluate theory, and
 Discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of
knowledge
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 Hence, basic research may take any of the

following forms:
 Discovery: where a totally new ideas or explanation
emerges from empirical research which may
revolutionalize thinking on that particular topic
 Invention: where a new technique or method is
created
 Reflection: where an existing theory, technique or
group of ideas is re-examined possibly in a different
organizational or social context.
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 In general basic research:

 Represents a rigorous (accurate) and structured type
of analysis
 Employs careful sampling procedures in order to
extend the findings beyond the group or situation,
and
 Has little concern for the application of the findings
or social usefulness of the findings.
 43

• Applied Research:

• Is designed to solve practical problems of the modern

world, rather than to acquire knowledge for
knowledge’s sake.
• Is conducted in relation to actual problems and under
the conditions in which they are found in practice
• Employs methodology that is not as rigorous (exact) as
that of basic research
• Yields findings that can be evaluated in terms of local
applicability and not in terms of universal validity.
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 Descriptive, Explanatory, and Exploratory

Research
 Descriptive research:
 Sets out to describe and to interpret what is.
 It looks at an individuals, groups, institutions,
methods and materials in order to describe, compare,
contrast, classify, analyze and interpret the entities
and the events that constitute the various fields of
inquiry.
 It aims at describe the state of affairs as it exists.
 45

 The methods that come under this method are:

i. Surveys
ii. Correlation studies
iii. Observation studies
iv. Case studies
 46

 Surveys:
 Gather data on a one- shot (at a particular point in
time) and hence is economical and efficient
 Represents a wide range of target populations
 Generates a numerical data
• Provides descriptive, inferential (the of deriving
conclusion from some premises) and explanatory
information
• Manipulates key factors and variables to derive
frequencies, and
• Presents material which is uncluttered (in order) by
specific contextual factors
 47

• Correlational studies:
• Traces relationship among two or more variables in
order to gain greater situational insight
• Its purpose is not to establish cause-effect
relationship among variables but to determine
whether the variables under the study have some
kind of association or not
 Variable being studied may have positive, negative
relationship or they may not have relationship at all
 Example: studying whether there is a relationship
between gender and choice of field of study
 48

 Observational study:
 Involves observing and recording of behavior or trait
or attribute as it occur in its natural settings.
 It has the following important features:
o Non interference
o Involves the observation and detection of invariants or
behavior patterns or other phenomena that exist in the
real world
o Useful when we know little or nothing about a certain
subject
o It is basically descriptive, it cannot tell us why the
phenomenon occurred
 49

 Case study:
 Emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited
number of events or conditions and their
relationship.
 They are largely descriptive examinations, usually of
small numbers of sites (small towns, hospitals,
schools).
 Provides very engaging, rich explorations of a project
or application as it develops in a real world setting.
 50

• Explanatory Research:
• It is a desire to know ‘’why’’, to explain, is the purpose
of this research.
• It is also called analytical research in which its aim is
to understand phenomena by discovering and
measuring causal relationship among them.
• That is, it looks for causes and reasons.
 51

 It involves:
 Explaining things not just reporting. Why?
Elaborating and enriching a theory explanation
 Determining which of several explanation is best.
 Determine the accuracy of the theory: test a
theory’s predictions or principles.
 Providing evidence to support or refuse an
explanation or prediction
 Testing a theory’s predictions or principles
 52

 There are two types of explanatory research:

o Experimental research
o Ex post facto research
 53

 Experimental research:
 Involves comparing two groups on one outcome
measures to test some hypothesis regarding
causation.
 The key element in true experimental research is
scientific control and the ability to rule out alternative
explanations.
 It is the best method when the purpose of research is
to determine causal influences between variables.
 In experimental research, the researcher intentionally
manipulates one variable to measures its effect on the
other.
 54

• Ex post facto research:

• Is the method of testing out possible antecedents
(preceding) of events that have happened cannot,
therefore, be engineered manipulated by the
investigator.
• Ex post facto in research means after the fact or
retrospectively and refers to those studies which
investigate possible cause and effect relationship by
observing an existing condition or state of affairs and
searching back in time of for plausible causal factors.
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• Exploratory research:
• Is conducted when there are few or no earlier studies
to which references can be made for information. It
provides insight to and comprehensions of an issues
or situations for more rigorous investigations later.
• Is a type of research conducted because a problem
has not been clearly defined. Its purpose is to gain
background information and better understand and
clarify a problem. However, are not usually useful for
decision making by themselves.
 56

 It helps to:
o Determine the best research design
o Develop hypothesis
o Develop question to be answered
o Understand how to measure variables
o Determine data collection method, and
o Determine selection of subject
 57

• Qualitative and Quantitative research

• Qualitative research:
• Involve studies that do not attempt to quantify their
results through statistical summary or analysis. Is
seeks to describe various aspects about behavior and
other factors studied in the social sciences and
humanities.
• It typically involves in-depth interviews, group
discussions, artifact (made by human) studies,
projective techniques, and observations without
formal measurement.
 58

 Is characterized by adherence to diverse array of

orientations and strategies for maximizing the validity
of trustworthiness of study procedures and results.
 It is thus a type of empirical enquiry that entails
purposive sampling for gathering data.
 59

 Quantitative research:
 Is the systematic and scientific investigation of
quantitative properties and phenomena and their
relationships.
 It concentrates on measuring or counting and
involves collecting and analyzing numerical data and
applying statistical tests.
 The research problem
 What is a research problem? It is a question or matter
that involving doubts, uncertainty or difficulty that is
proposed for solution or discussion. A problem usually
implies that a controversy or difference of opinion
exists.
 is the problem or issue that leads to the need for a
study.
 is a question or issue to be examined.
 “The problem statement describes the context for the
study and it also identifies the general analysis
approach”.
 “A problem might be defined as the issue that exists in
the literature, theory, or practice that leads to a need for
the study”
 Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which a
researcher experiences in the context of either theoretical or
practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same.
 Research problem must be feasible, clear, significant, and
ethical
 The research problem in a study begins to become clear
when the researcher asks:
 “what is the need for this study?” or
 “what problem influenced the need to undertake this
study?”,
 “Why does this research need to be conducted?” .
 If a researcher is unable to answer these questions
clearly then the statement of the problem is likely to be
ambiguous
 Key aspects of a research problem:
 A question
 Something which is not fully understood
 Something that has been deliberately chosen as the
subject of inquiry
 What is not a research question?
 A question that has an obvious or previously
confirmed answer
 A statement of fact by the researcher – the
researcher has an equivocal answer, view or
opinion
 A statement that precludes (make impossible)
inquiry
 The statement of the problem:
 Is often followed by a more detailed discussion of the
problem area.
 Explains its background more fully.
 Summarizes its implications in terms of professional
significance or theory development.
 Provides the reader with a more comprehensive
understanding of what has been done or learned so
far by other researchers.
 Discusses briefly the literature relevant to the
problem.
 sources of research problems:
 You own experience or the experience of others may be a
source of problem supply.
 Scientific literature; you may read about certain findings
and notice that a certain field was not covered. This could
lead to a research problem.
 Theories could be another source. Shortcomings in
theories could be researched.
 It might spring from an experience researchers have had
in their personal lives or workplaces.
 It may come from an extensive debate that has appeared
in the literature.
 It might develop from policy debates in government or
among top executives.
 Why is it important to state and define the problem
well?
 Because a clear statement of the problem:
 Is the foundation for the further development of the
research proposal (research objectives, methodology,
work plan, etc);
 Makes it easier to find information and reports of
similar studies from which your own study design can
benefit;
 Enables the researcher to systematically point out why
the proposed research on the problem should be
undertaken and what you hope to achieve with the
study results.
 Information included in the statement of a
problem
 A brief description of factors needs to be investigated
 A more detailed description of the nature of the
problem
 basic description of the research problem
 the discrepancy between what is and what should
be
 its size, distribution, and severity
 An analysis of the major factors that may influence the
problem and a convincing argument that available
knowledge is insufficient to answer a certain question
and to update the previous knowledge.
 A brief description of any solutions that have been tried
in the past, how well they have worked, and why further
research is needed.
 A description of the type of information expected to
result from the project and how this information will be
used to help solve the problem
 If necessary, a short list of definitions of crucial concepts
used in the statement of the problem.
 Technique involved in defining a problem:
 Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a
crucial part of a research study and must in no case be
accomplished hurriedly.
 The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking
of the following steps generally one after the other:
i. statement of the problem in a general way;
ii. understanding the nature of the problem;
iii. surveying the available literature
iv. developing the ideas through discussions; and
v. rephrasing the research problem into a working
proposition.
i. Statement of the problem in a general way:
 First of all the problem should be stated in a broad
general way, keeping in view either some practical
concern or some scientific or intellectual interest.
 For this purpose, the researcher must immerse himself
thoroughly in the subject matter concerning which he
wishes to pose a problem.
 Then the researcher can himself state the problem or he
can seek the guidance of the guide or the subject expert
in accomplishing this task.
 Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general terms,
and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down
and phrase the problem in operational terms.
 In case there is some directive from an organizational
authority, the problem then can be stated accordingly.
 The problem stated in a broad general way may contain
various ambiguities which must be resolved by cool
thinking and rethinking over the problem.
 At the same time the feasibility of a particular solution
has to be considered and the same should be kept in
view while stating the problem.
ii. Understanding the nature of the problem:
 The next step in defining the problem is to understand its
origin and nature clearly.
 The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss
it with those who first raised it in order to find out how
the problem originally came about and with what
objectives in view.
 If the researcher has stated the problem himself, he
should consider once again all those points that induced
him to make a general statement concerning the problem.
 For a better understanding of the nature of the problem
involved, he can enter into discussion with those who
have a good knowledge of the problem concerned or
similar other problems. The researcher should also keep
in view the environment within which the problem is to
be studied and understood.
iii.Surveying the available literature:
 All available literature concerning the problem at hand
must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a
definition of the research problem is given.
 This means that the researcher must be well-conversant
with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as
also all other relevant literature.
 He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research
already undertaken on related problems.
 This is done to find out what data and other materials, if
any, are available for operational purposes. “Knowing what
data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself
as well as the technique that might be used.”
 This would also help a researcher to know if there are
certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing
theories applicable to the problem under study are
inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings of the
different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with
the theoretical expectations and so on.
 All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the
field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., he can move up
starting from the existing premise.
 Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the
type of difficulties that may be encountered in the present
study as also the possible analytical shortcomings.
 At times such studies may also suggest useful and even
new lines of approach to the present problem.
iv. Developing the ideas through discussions:
 Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful
information.
 Various new ideas can be developed through such an
exercise.
 Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his
colleagues and others who have enough experience in
the same area or in working on similar problems.
 This is quite often known as an experience survey.
 People with rich experience are in a position to
enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his
proposed study and their advice and comments are
usually invaluable to the researcher.
 They help him sharpen his focus of attention on
specific aspects within the field.
 Discussions with such persons should not only be
confined to the formulation of the specific problem at
hand, but should also be concerned with the general
approach to the given problem, techniques that might
be used, possible solutions, etc.
v. Rephrasing the research problem:
 Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research
problem into a working proposition.
 Once the nature of the problem has been clearly
understood, the environment (within which the problem
has got to be studied) has been defined, discussions over
the problem have taken place and the available literature
has been surveyed and examined, rephrasing the problem
into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task.
 Through rephrasing, the researcher puts the research
problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may
become operationally viable and may help in the
development of working hypotheses.
 In addition to what has been stated above, the following points
must also be observed while defining a research problem:
a. Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings
used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly
defined.
b. Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the
research problem should be clearly stated.
c. A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation
(i.e., the criteria for the selection of the problem) should be
provided.
d. The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data
available must also be considered by the researcher in
defining the problem.
e. The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the
problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in
defining a research problem.
 Considerations in selecting a research problem:
 These help to ensure that your study will remain
manageable and that you will remain motivated.
1. Interest: a research endeavor is usually time
consuming, and involves hard work and possibly
unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great
interest to sustain the required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic
that you can manage within the time and resources at
your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something
manageable, specific and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear
about the indicators and measurement of concepts (if
used) in your study.
4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate
level of expertise for the task you are proposing since you
need to do the work yourself.
5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing
body of knowledge, bridges current gaps and is useful in
policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in
the study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make
sure that data are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study
population and how ethical problems can be overcome
should be thoroughly examined at the problem
formulating stage.
 In general:
 A problem statement is the description of an issue
currently existing and that needs to be addressed.
 It provides the context for the research study and
generates the questions which the research aims to
answer.
 A good problem statement is just one sentence (with
several paragraphs of elaboration).
 The problem statement is more specific than a topic
and it limits the scope of the research problem.
 The actual statement may be in a declarative or in
question form.
 A statement of research problem communicates:
 The focus & importance of the problem: i.e it introduces
the reader to the importance of the problem. The reader
is oriented to the significance of the study and the
research questions or hypotheses to follow;
 The context & scope: i.e, it places the problem in a
context
 The framework for reporting the results: i.e, it provides
the framework for reporting the results. Indicate what is
probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how
the findings will present this information. You could
relate the findings to prior research, or it could be
presented as a comparison, or you could draw
implications from the findings to generalize to other
related conditions
 Defining Questions and Hypotheses
 Hypotheses and questions are linked to the speculative
proposition of the problem statement, can be inferred
from the overall conceptual framework of a study, and
are of critical importance to data analysis and
interpretation
 They represent a further narrowing of the objectives,
and a further step toward Operationalizing what is to be
done (a preview of the procedures).
 Research questions
 The research question is one of the first methodological
steps the investigator has to take when undertaking a
research. The research question must be accurately and
clearly defined.
 Choosing a research question is the central element of
both quantitative and qualitative research and in some
cases it may precede construction of the conceptual
framework of study. In all cases, it makes the
theoretical assumptions in the framework more
explicit, most of all it indicates what the researcher
wants to know most and first.
 Research question should be feasible (can be
investigated with available resources)
 Research question should be clear (specifically define
terms used…operational needed, but
give both)
 Research question should be significant (worth
investigating; how does it contribute to
field and who can use info)
 Hypothesis:
 Hypothesis may be precisely defined as a tentative
proposition suggested as a solution to a problem or as
an explanation of some phenomena. It is also defined
as a formal statement that presents the expected
relationship between an independent and dependent
variable.
 The main purposes and importance of hypothesis in a
scientific research are:
 It provides a tentative explanation of phenomena
and facilitates the extension of knowledge in the
area
 It provides the investigator with a relational
statement that is directly testable in a research study
 It provides a frame work for reporting conclusions of
the study
 It could be considered as the working instrument of
theory. Hypothesis can be deducted from theory and
also from other hypothesis
 It could be tested and shown to be probably
supported or not supported, apart from man’s own
values and opinions.
 The usable hypothesis:
 Must have explanatory power
 Must state the expected relationship between
variables
 Must be testable
 Should be consistent with the existing body of
knowledge
 Should be stated as simply and concisely as possible
 A hypothesis could be null or alternate hypothesis.
 Null Hypothesis is a statement that there is no actual
relationship between variables. (Ho or HN)
 A null hypothesis may read, “There is no difference
between………..”
 Ho states the opposition of what the experimenter would
expect or predict
 The final conclusion of the investigator will either retain
a null hypothesis or reject a null hypothesis in favor of
an alternate hypothesis
 Not rejecting Ho doesn’t really mean that Ho is true.
There might not be enough evidence against H o
 Example: “There is no statistically significant difference
in the anxiety level of children of high IQ and those of
low IQ”
 Alternate Hypothesis is a statement that suggests a
potential outcome that the researcher may expect. (H1
or HA)
 H1 may come from prior literature or studies
 It is established when a null hypothesis is rejected
 Often an alternate hypothesis is the desired
conclusion of the investigator
 It is of two types directional and non-directional
 Directional alternate hypothesis is a type of alternate
hypothesis that specifies the direction of expected
findings
 Example: “Children with high IQ will exhibit more
anxiety than children with low IQ”
 Non-directional alternate hypothesis is a type of
alternate hypothesis in which no definite direction of
the expected findings is specified
 Example: There is a statistically significant difference in
the anxiety level of children of high IQ and those of low
IQ”.
 Research Design

 Meaning of research design

 Research design is a set of advance decisions that make up
the master plan specifying the methods and procedures for
collecting and analyzing the needed information.
 In other words, research designs are plans and the
procedures for research that span the decisions from broad
assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and
analysis.
 It gives direction and systematizes the research.
 Besides, there are many definitions of research design, but
no single definition imparts the full range of important
aspects.
 Lets see some of the definitions of research design:
 Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by
what means concerning an inquiry or a research study
constitute a research design.
 A research design is the arrangement of conditions for
collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with economy
in procedure.
 Research design constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement, and analysis of data.
 Research design aids the researcher in the allocation of
limited resources by posing crucial choices in
methodology.
 Research design is the plan and structure of investigation
so conceived as to obtain answers to research questions.
The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research.
It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from
writing hypotheses and their operational implications to
the final analysis of data.
 Thesedefinitions differ in detail, but together they give the
essentials of research design:
 An activity – and time –based plan.
 A plan always based on the research question.
 A guide for selecting sources and types of information.
 A framework for specifying the relationships among
the study’s variables.
 A procedural outline for every research activity.
 The overall decision involves which design should be
used to study a topic.
 Informing this decision should be the:
 worldview assumptions the researcher brings to the
study;
 procedures of inquiry (called strategies); and
 specific methods of data collection, analysis and
interpretation.
 The selection of a research design is also based on the
nature of the research problem or issue being addressed,
the researchers' personal experiences, and the audiences
for the study.
 The design decisions happen to be in respect of:
 What is the study about?
 Why is the study being made?
 Where will the study be carried out?
 What type of data is required?
 Where can the required data be found?
 What periods of time will the study include?
 What will be the sample design?
 What techniques of data collection will be used?
 How will the data be analyzed?
 In what style will the report be prepared?
 Keeping in view the above stated design decisions; one may
split the overall research design into the following parts:
a. the sampling design which deals with the method of
selecting items to be observed for the given study;
b. the observational design which relates to the conditions
under which the observations are to be made;
c. the statistical design which concerns with the question of
how many items are to be observed and how the
information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
d. the operational design which deals with the techniques
by which the procedures specified in the sampling,
statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
 From what has been stated above, we can state the
important features of a research design as under:
i. It is a plan that specifies the sources and types of
information relevant to the research problem.
ii. It is a strategy specifying which approach will be used
for gathering and analyzing the data.
iii. It also includes the time and cost budgets since most
studies are done under these two constraints.
 In brief, research design must, at least, contain:
 a clear statement of the research problem;
 procedures and techniques to be used for gathering
information;
 the population to be studied; and
 methods to be used in processing and analysing data.
 Need for research design
 Research design is needed because it facilitates the
smooth sailing of the various research operations, thereby
making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.
 Like blueprint, we need a research design or a plan in
advance of data collection and analysis for our research
project.
 Feature of a good design
A good design is often characterised by adjectives like
flexible, appropriate, efficient, and economical and so on.
 Generally, the design which minimises bias and
maximises the reliability of the data collected and
analysed is considered a good design.
 The design which gives the smallest experimental error is
supposed to be the best design in many investigations.
 Similarly,a design which yields maximal information
and provides an opportunity for considering many
different aspects of a problem is considered most
appropriate and efficient design in respect of many
research problems.
 Thus, the question of good design is related to the
purpose or objective of the research problem and also
with the nature of the problem to be studied.
 A design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be
found wanting in one respect or the other in the context
of some other research problem.
 One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types
of research problems.
A research design appropriate for a particular research
problem, usually involves the consideration of the
following factors:
 the means of obtaining information;
 the availability and skills of the researcher and his
staff, if any;
 the objective of the problem to be studied;
 the nature of the problem to be studied; and
 the availability of time and money for the research
work.
 Research Methods versus Methodology
 Research methods:
 may be understood as all those methods/techniques
that are used for conduction of research.
 refer to the methods the researchers use in performing
research operations.
 all those methods which are used by the researcher
during the course of studying his research problem
are termed as research methods.
 Keeping this in view, research methods can be put into
the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which
are concerned with the collection of data. These
methods will be used where the data already
available are not sufficient to arrive at the required
solution;
2. The second group consists of those statistical
techniques which are used for establishing
relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which
are used to evaluate the accuracy of the results
obtained.
 Research methods falling in the above stated last two
groups are generally taken as the analytical tools of
research.
 More specifically:
 a method is a particular research technique or way to
gather information about a phenomenon.
 it is a specific tool we use in research projects to gain
fuller understanding of phenomena.
 it is a techniques used in research to gather data which
are to be used as a basis for inference and
interpretation, for explanation and prediction.
 E.g., interviews, participant observations etc
 Research methodology:
 is a way to systematically solve the research problem.
 It may be understood as a science of studying how
research is done scientifically
 when we talk of research methodology we not only talk
of the research methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods we use.
 The three type of design: Qualitative, Quantitative,
and Mixed methods
 Often the distinction between qualitative and
quantitative research is framed in terms:
 of using words (qualitative) rather than numbers
(quantitative), or
 using closed-ended questions (quantitative
hypotheses) rather than open-ended questions
(qualitative interview questions).
 Amore complete way to view the gradations of
differences between them is:
 the basic philosophical assumptions researchers
bring to the study,
 the types of research strategies used overall in the
research (e.g., quantitative experiments or
qualitative case studies), and
 the specific methods employed in conducting these
strategies (e.g., collecting data quantitatively on
instruments versus collecting qualitative data
through observing a setting).
 With this background, it should prove helpful to view
definitions of these three key terms as used in this
chapter:
 1. Qualitative research
 is a means for exploring and understanding the
meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or
human problem.
 It implies that, the investigator often makes knowledge
claims based on the multiple meanings of individual
experiences, and socially and historically constructed
meanings.
 The process of research involves emerging questions
and procedures, data typically collected in the
participant's setting, data analysis inductively building
from particulars to general themes, and the researcher
making interpretations of the meaning of the data.
 The final written report has a flexible structure.
 2. Quantitative research
 isa means for testing objective theories by examining
the relationship among variables.
 These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on
instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed
using statistical procedures.
 Like qualitative researchers, those who engage in this
form of inquiry have assumptions about testing
theories deductively, building in protections against
bias, controlling for alternative explanations, and
being able to generalize and replicate the findings.
 3. Mixed methods research
 is an approach to inquiry that combines or associates
both qualitative and quantitative forms.
 It involves philosophical assumptions, the use of
qualitative and quantitative approaches, and the
mixing of both approaches in a study.
 Thus, it is more than simply collecting and analyzing
both kinds of data; it also involves the use of both
approaches in tandem so that the overall strength of a
study is greater than either qualitative or quantitative
research.
 Three components involved in a design
 To reiterate, in planning a study, researchers need to
think through:
 the philosophical worldview assumptions that they
bring to the study,
 the strategy of inquiry that is related to this
worldview, and
 the specific methods or procedures of research that
translate the approach into practice.
 A. Philosophical Worldviews
 All research is based on assumption about how the
world is perceived and how we can best come to
understand it.
 To understand the world we need to know the
philosophy lies behind.
 The three main reasons why the exploration of
philosophy may be significant with particular
reference to research methodology are described
below:
 In writing about worldviews, a proposal might include
a section that addresses the following:
 The philosophical worldview proposed in the study
 A definition of basic considerations of that
worldview
 How the worldview shaped their approach to
research
 There are different worldviews of which lets discussed:
postpositivism, constructivism, and pragmatism.
 1. The Postpositivist Worldview
 The postpositivist assumptions have represented the
traditional form of research, and these assumptions
hold true more for quantitative research than
qualitative research.
 This worldview is sometimes called the scientific
method or doing science research.
 This last term is called postpositivism because it
represents the thinking after positivism, challenging
the traditional notion of the absolute truth of
knowledge and recognizing that we cannot be
"positive" about our claims of knowledge when
studying the behavior and actions of humans.
 Postpositivists hold a deterministic philosophy in
which causes probably determine effects or outcomes.
 It is also reductionistic in that the intent is to reduce
the ideas into a small, discrete set of ideas to test, such
as the variables that comprise hypotheses and research
questions.
 It is also called positivist/postpositivist research,
empirical science, and postpostivism.
 2. The Social Constructivist Worldview
 Social constructivism (often combined with
interpretivism; is such a perspective, and it is typically
seen as an approach to qualitative research.
 Social constructivists hold assumptions that
individuals seek understanding of the world in which
they live and work.
 Individuals develop subjective meanings of their
experiences-meanings directed toward certain objects
or things.
 These meanings are varied and multiple, leading the
researcher to look for the complexity of views rather
than narrowing meanings into a few categories or
ideas.
 The goal of the research is to rely as much as possible
on the participants' views of the situation being
studied.
 The more open-ended the questioning, the better, as
the researcher listens carefully to what people say or
do in their life settings.
 Often these subjective meanings are negotiated
socially and historically
 The researcher's intent is to make sense of (or
interpret) the meanings others have about the world.
Rather than starting with a theory (as in
postpostivism), inquirers generate or inductively
develop a theory or pattern of meaning.
 3. The Pragmatic Worldview
 Pragmatism as a worldview arises out of actions,
situations, and consequences rather than antecedent
conditions (as in postpositivism).
 Instead of focusing on methods, researchers emphasize
the research problem and use all approaches available
to understand the problem. Pragmatism is not
committed to anyone system of philosophy and reality.
 This applies to mixed methods research in that
inquirers draw liberally from both quantitative and
qualitative assumptions when they engage in their
research.
 In genera:
 (Post)positivism/Determinism/Empiricism:
 Cause and effect/Scientific method
 Experimentation and measurement can reveal objective reality
 Strive for objectivity
 Start with hypothesis and test

 Constructivism:
 Reality is subjective and multiple
 Seek to understand meaning as experienced by participants
 Meaning of events is mediated by interactions with others, and
social and cultural context
 Start with open-ended inquiry and result in hypothesis
 Pragmatic:
 Analogue of mixed-method strategy
 Mixes aspects of other worldviews to get at “what
works”
 No need for ideological consistency
 Believe in objective reality (as with empiricists),
but acknowledge context is inescapable (as per
constructivists)
 B. Strategies of Inquiry
 The researcher not only selects a qualitative,
quantitative, or mixed methods study to conduct, the
inquirer also decides on a type of study within these
three choices.
 Strategies of inquiry are types of qualitative,
quantitative, and mixed methods designs or models that
provide specific direction for procedures in a research
design.
 Others have called them approaches to inquiry or
research methodologies.
 1. Quantitative Strategies
 Quantitative methods employs strategies of inquiry such as
surveys and experiments and collects information using
pre-set standardised instruments that can generate
relevant statistical data.
 Survey research:
 Provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends,
attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a
sample of that population.
 It includes cross-sectional (data are collected at one
point in time from a sample selected to represent a
larger population)and longitudinal studies using
questionnaires or structured interviews for data
collection, with the intent of generalizing from a sample
to a population.
 Experimental research:

Seeks to determine if a specific treatment

influences an outcome.
This impact is assessed by providing a specific
treatment to one group and withholding it
from another and then determining how both
groups scored on an outcome.
 2. Qualitative Strategies
A qualitative research approach uses strategies of inquiry
such as:
a. ethnographies,
b. grounded theory studies,
c. case studies,
d. Phenomenological, or
e. Narratives research.
 Ethnography:
 Isa strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies
an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a
prolonged period of time by collecting, primarily
observational and interview data.
 The research process is flexible and typically evolves
contextually in response to the lived realities
encountered in the field setting.
 Grounded theory:
 Is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher derives a
general, abstract theory of a process, action, or
interaction grounded in the views of participants.
 This process involves using multiple stages of data
collection and the refinement and interrelationship of
categories of information.
 Case studies:
 Are a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher
explores in depth a program, event, activity, process, or
one or more individuals.
 Cases are bounded by time and activity, and
researchers collect detailed information using a variety
of data collection procedures over a sustained period of
time.
 Phenomenological research:
 Is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher
identifies the essence of human experiences about a
phenomenon as described by participants.
 Understanding the lived experiences marks
phenomenology as a philosophy as well as a method,
and the procedure involves studying a small number of
subjects through extensive and prolonged engagement
to develop patterns and relationships of meaning.
 In this process, the researcher brackets or sets aside
his or her own experiences in order to understand
those of the participants in the study.
 Narrative research:
 Is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies the
lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to
provide stories about their lives. This information is then
often retold or restoried by the researcher into a narrative
chronology. In the end the narrative combine’s views form
the participant's life with those of the researcher's life in a
collaborative narrative.
 3. Mixed Methods Strategies
 Mixed methods research is an approach to inquiry that
combines qualitative and quantitative approaches.
 The researchers tend to base knowledge claims on
pragmatic grounds employing both quantitative and
qualitative data either concurrently, sequentially, or
trans formatively to best understand research
problems.
 Sequential mixed methods:
 Procedures are those in which the researcher seeks to
elaborate on or expand on the findings of one method
with another method.
 This may involve beginning with a qualitative interview
for exploratory purposes and following up with a
quantitative, survey method with a large sample so that
the researcher can generalize results to a population.
 Alternatively, the study may begin with a quantitative
method in which a theory or concept is tested, followed
by a qualitative method involving detailed exploration
with a few cases or individuals.
 Concurrent mixed methods:
 Procedures are those in which the researcher converges
or merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to
provide a comprehensive analysis of the research
problem.
 In this design, the investigator collects both forms of
data at the same time and then integrates the
information in the interpretation of the overall results.
 Also, in this design, the researcher may embed one
smaller form of data within another larger data
collection in order to analyze different types of questions
(the qualitative addresses the process while the
quantitative, the outcomes).
 Transformative mixed methods:
 Procedures are those in which the researcher uses a
theoretical lens as an overarching perspective within a
design that contains both quantitative and qualitative
data.
 This lens provides a framework for topics of interest,
methods for collecting data, and outcomes or changes
anticipated by the study.
 Within this lens could be a data collection method that
involves a sequential or a concurrent approach.
 C. Research Methods
 How to collect, analyze, and interpret data. As with
strategies, tend to be associated with specific design
categories.
 The third major element in the framework is the specific
research methods that involve the forms of data
collection, analysis, and interpretation that researchers
propose for their studies.
 The choice of methods turns on whether the intent is to
specify the type of information to be collected in advance
of the study or allow it to emerge from participants in the
project.
 Criteria for selecting a research design
 Given the possibility of qualitative, quantitative, or
mixed methods approaches, what factors affect a choice
of one approach over another for the design of a
proposal?
 Added to worldview, Strategy, and methods would be the
research problem, the personal experiences of the
researcher, and the audience(s) for whom the report will
be written.
 141

1. Match Between Problem and Approach:

 Certain types of social research problems call for specific
approaches. Therefore, researchers must analyze what
research approaches called for their problems.
 These are some suggestions for matching problem and
approach.
 142

 Quantitative approach, in which the problem is:

 identifying factors that influence an outcomes
 the utility of an intervention
 understanding the best predictors of outcomes
 testing theory or explanation
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 Qualitative approach, in which the problem is:

 understanding concept or phenomenon
 understanding on little research done on its
 understanding on problem that important factor is
unknown (being new topic)
 understanding the particular sample or studied
group that existing theories do not apply for
 in natural setting
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 Mixed Methods approach, in which use both

quantitative and qualitative approach because of;
 wanting of both generalization and detailed view of
the meaning of phenomenon or concept for
individuals
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2. Personal Experiences
 To choose, the researcher’s own personal and training
and experiences is also concerned.
 An individual trained in technical, scientific writing,
statistics, and computer statistical programs who is also
familiar with quantitative journals most likely choose
the quantitative design.
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 The qualitative approach incorporates much more of a

literary form of writing, computer text analysis
programs, and experience in conducting open-ended
interviews and observations.
 The mixed methods research needs to be familiar with
both quantitative and qualitative research. This person
also needs an understanding of the rationales for
combining both forms of data so that they can be
articulated in a proposal.
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3. Audience
 Finally, researchers are sensitive to audiences to whom
they report their research. These audiences may be
journal editors, journal readers, graduate committees,
conference attendees, or colleagues, or colleagues in the
field. Students should consider the approaches typically
supported and used by their advisers. The experiences
of these audiences with qualitative, quantitative, or
mixed methods studies will shape the decision made
about this choice.
 Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed procedures
 1. Quantitative procedures
 For many proposal writers, the method section, of all
sections discussed thus far, is the most concrete, specific
part of a proposal. In this second sections we presents
essential steps in designing a quantitative method for a
research proposal or study, with specific focus on survey
modes of inquiry. These modes reflect alternative
knowledge claims.
 Sampling and data collection methods in Quantitative design
 Probability sampling design is generally used in quantitative
studies. In this, sample is taken in such a manner that each and
every unit of the population has an equal and positive chance of
being selected.
 In this way, it is ensured that the sample would truly represent
the overall population.
 For collecting data, in general the following methods would be
used:
 Self-administered questionnaires- mail, in person etc
 Interviews- face to face interviews; telephone interviews ;
 Structured record reviews to collect financial, medical or
school information;
 A web-based or internet survey (administering it online), and
 Structured observation.
 Survey research design
 Survey research design provides a quantitative or
numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a
population by studying a sample of that population.
 From sample results, the researcher generalizes or
makes claims about the population.
 The purpose of survey design is to generalize from a
sample to a population so that inferences can be made
about some characteristics, attitudes or behaviours of
the population.
 A survey design can be either: Cross-Sectional Surveys:
Data are collected at one point in time from a sample
selected to represent a larger population, or
Longitudinal Surveys: Data are collected over time
from a sample selected to represent a larger population.
 Of various reasons, survey can be selected because of the
following reasons:
 Uniqueness: gather information not available from
other sources
 Probability Sampling: unbiased representation of
population of interest
 Standardization of measurement: same information
collected from every respondent
 Analysis needs: use survey data to complement (added
to complete) existing data from secondary sources
 The design of a survey method section follows a standard
format. In preparing to design these components in to a
proposal, consider the questions on the checklist (A
checklist of Questions for Designing a survey Method) shown
below as a general guide.
 Is the purpose of a survey design stated?
 Are the reasons for choosing the design mentioned?
 Is the nature of the survey (cross-sectional vs.
longitudinal) identified?
 Are the population and size of the population
mentioned?
 Will the population be stratified? If so, how?
 How many people will be in the sample? On what basis
was this size chosen?
 What will be the procedure for sampling these
individuals (e.g., random, nonrandom)?
 What instrument will be used in the survey? Who
developed the instrument?
 What are the content areas addressed in the survey? The
Scales?
 What procedure will be used to pilot or field test the
survey?
 What is the time line for administering the survey?
 What are the variables in the study?
 How do these variables cross-reference with the
research questions and items on the survey? What
specific steps will be taken in data analysis to:
a. analyze returns?
b. conduct a descriptive analysis?
c. collapse items into scales?
d. check for reliability of scales?
e. run inferential statistics to answer the research
questions?
 2. Qualitative Procedures
 Qualitative procedures stand in stark contrast to the
methods of quantitative research.
 Qualitative inquiry employs different knowledge claims,
strategies of inquiry, and methods of data collection and
analysis.
 Although the processes are similar, qualitative procedures
rely on text and image data, have unique steps in data
analysis, and draw on diverse strategies of inquiry.
A checklist of Questions for Designing a Qualitative
procedure includes the followings:
 Are the basic characteristics of qualitative studies
mentioned?
 Is the specific type of qualitative strategy of inquiry to
be used in the study mentioned? Is the history of, a
definition of, and applications for the strategy
mentioned?
 Does the reader gain an understanding of the
researcher’s role in the study (past experiences,
personal connections to sites and people, steps in
gaining entry, and sensitive ethical issues)?
 Is the purposeful sampling strategy for sites and
individuals identified?
 Are the specific forms of data collection mentioned and
a rationale given for their use
 Are the procedures for recording information (such as
protocols) during the data collection procedure
mentioned?
 Are the data analysis steps identified?
 Is there evidence that the researcher has organized the
data for analysis?
 Has the researcher reviewed the data generally to obtain a
sense of the information?
 Has coding been used with the data?
 Have the codes been developed to form a description or to
identify themes?
 Are the themes interrelated to show a higher level of analysis
and abstraction?
 Are the ways that the data will be represented such as in
tables, graphs, and figures mentioned?
 Have the bases for interpreting the analysis (personal
experiences, the literature, questions, action agenda) been
specified?
 Has the researcher mentioned the outcome of the study?
(Develop a theory? Provide a complex picture of themes)
 Have multiple strategies been cited for validating the
findings?
 3. Mixed Methods Procedures
 With the development and perceived legitimacy of both
qualitative and quantitative research in the social and
human sciences, mixed methods research, employing
the data collection associated with both forms of data, is
expanding.
A Checklist of Questions for Designing a Mixed Methods
Procedure
 Is a basic definition of mixed methods research
provided?
 Does the reader have a sense for the potential use of a
mixed methods strategy?
 Are the criteria identified for choosing a mixed methods
strategy?
 Is the strategy identified, and are its criteria for
selection given?
 Is a visual model presented that illustrates the research
strategy?
 Is the proper notation used in presenting the visual
model?
 Are procedures of data collection and analysis
mentioned as they relate to the model?
 Are the sampling strategies for both quantitative and
qualitative data collection mentioned? Do they relate to
the strategy?
 Are specific data analysis procedures indicated? Do
they relate to the strategy?
 Are the procedures for validating both the quantitative
and qualitative data discussed?
 Is the narrative structure mentioned, and does it relate
to the type of mixed methods strategy being used?