DESCRIPTION AND

IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS

BY KANOTI
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
 TOPICS TO DISCUSS
1. Description and identification of rocks
2. Engineering Properties of Rocks
3. Rocks as construction materials
4. subsurface water – Groundwater
5. Floods
6. Earthquakes and Aseismic Design
 OBJECTIVE
 Determine the meaning of the rock cycle and what conditions
are necessary to form igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
rocks
 Identify the names of common rock forming processes and
how textural/compositional characteristics are associated with
the various geologic processes
 Infer how specific hand samples representing all three rock
groups have formed in relation to the rock cycle and how they
can be identified
 Geology of Kenya
 Rock description at a field station
 Rocks and Minerals
A mineral is a naturally occurring
inorganic element or compound with a
definite internal arrangement of ions
and a chemical composition that is
fixed or only varies slightly.

Rocks are aggregates of minerals.

NB: Minerals are solids with a definite chemical

composition and crystalline structure. While rocks
can be made of minerals, and therefore have some of
these same properties, they can also be made of
materials such as volcanic glass that do not contain a
single crystal.
 Minerals
There are 92 naturally occurring elements but most
minerals contain 8 main elements. These are the
elements that make up most of the Earth’s crustal
material.
Element Average Weight Percent in Crust
Oxygen 46.6
Silicon 27.7
Aluminum 8.1
Iron 5.0
Calcium 3.6
Sodium 2.8
Potassium 2.6
Magnesium 2.1
All others 1.5

NB: While O is the most abundant element, it only appears

in combinations with other elements as oxides (i.e. silicates )
 Minerals Items of note:
1. Native elements = pure
elements
2. Other categories comprise
compounds where ions are
combined with a common
element or group (e.g.,
sulfides, sulfates, oxides,
halides, etc).
3. Silicates are most abundant
(> 90% of all minerals
found are silicates). They
are composed of varying
numbers of silicate
groups(SiO42- ).
4. Some minerals formed by
ionic substitution (e.g.
plagioclase, olivine).

You don’t need to memorize all these names.

 Minerals
•Within each group or class there can be many individual minerals
•Any given mineral will have a limited chemical composition. If the
elements in that crystal are changed, it will no longer be the same
mineral.
• sodium chloride is the mineral halite;
• potassium chloride is the mineral sylvite;
• calcium carbonate is the mineral calcite;
• calcium sulfate is the mineral gypsum.
•There is some minor flexibility in chemical make-up caused by ionic
substitution. Some of the ions are similar in size and ionic charges
(Ex.: Fe+2 and Mg+2). If the mineral is crystallizing out of a liquid that
is rich in both elements, the crystal may incorporate some of the
"substitute" ions instead of the more appropriate ion.
• This substitution is common in the silicate families
 Minerals: Ionic Substitution
For example: The
plagioclase series
comprises minerals that
range in chemical
composition.

Na or Ca can substitute for each

other as can differing amounts of
Al and Si.

So plagioclase can range from

pure NaAlSi3O8 (Albite) to
pure CaAl2Si2O8 (Anorthite) and
includes combinations of Albite
and Anorthite.
 Mineral Identification
How do we identify unknown minerals?

By comparing physical properties of the substance to

known values we can logically identify it.

Properties:
1.Hardness
2.Color
3.Streak
4.Luster
5.Density
6.Cleavage/Fracture
7.Crystal Form
8.Magnetic Properties
 Hardness
Hardness scale developed by
Friedrich Mohs.

Runs from 1 to 10 with one

being the softest.

Take an item of known

hardness and try to scratch
the unknown item. If the
known is harder, it will scratch
the unknown.
So if a fingernail
2.5 3.5 5.5 6.5 can’t scratch it
Fingernail Penny Glass Steel Knife but a penny can,
its hardness is
between 2.5 and
3.5
 Color
Color is as simple as it sounds. Some
minerals are easily identified by color
because they always have the same color
characteristics. An example of this is
malachite which is always green.
However, other minerals can change
color drastically due to chemical
impurities. An example of this is
quartz. In its purest for, quartz is
colorless. Quartz with traces of iron
becomes violet (amethyst). With traces
of manganese it turns pink (rose
quartz).
 Streak
When a mineral is rubbed firmly across an unglazed tile of
white porcelain (a streak plate), it leaves a line of powder
called a streak.

The color of the streak is always the same, regardless of

impurities that may be contained in the mineral.

For example, quartz always leaves a white streak regardless of

whether it’s clear (pure quartz), violet (amethyst), or pink
(rose quartz).
 Luster
Luster is the way the surface of a mineral reflects light.
Luster should always be observed on a fresh cut of freshly
broken surface.

There are two general types of luster: metallic and non-

metallic.

The terms used to describe luster are:

Metallic -- example: gold

Vitreous (glassy) -- example: quartz
Adamantine (brilliant) -- example: diamond
Resinous (like resin or sap from a tree) – example:
sphalerite
Greasy or waxy -- example: turquoise
Pearly -- example: talc
Silky -- example: asbestos
Dull or earthy -- example: bauxite
 Cleavage
When a mineral breaks it does so by fracturing or cleaving. Crystal
cleavage is a smooth break producing what appears to be a flat crystal
face. How a mineral cleaves is controlled by its crystalline structure.

Some minerals break only in one direction while others cleave in two or
more directions.

Examples: Basal Cleavage is cleavage exhibited on a horizontal plane of

the mineral. Minerals with basal cleavage can sometimes be “peeled”.
E.g. Mica

Cubic Cleavage: Mineral cleaves perfectly in 3 planes. E.g. Calcite

 Minerals
So how are minerals formed?

Minerals are formed by the

process of crystallization.

Within the Earth’s interior

high temperatures and
pressures cause rocks to
melt, forming magma.

As the magma cools, various

elements and ions come
together to form solids with
a specific structure (a
crystal)

Different minerals form at

different temperatures. This
relationship is described by
Bowen’s Reaction Series.
 Rocks
Rocks are aggregates of minerals.

The variety of rocks that are found is determined by the

processes that lead to the formation of rocks and their mineral
constituents. As a general rule, the minerals that form a given a
rock will tend to crystallize at similar temperatures and
pressures.
 Rocks
Rocks fall into 3 broad categories depending on how they were
formed
• Igneous rocks are formed from the crystallization of magma
– Extrusive rocks means they formed on the surface;
resulted from faster cooling
– Intrusive rocks formed below the surface; resulted from
slow cooling
• Sedimentary rocks are formed by the sedimentation and
compaction of material (called lithification)
• Metamorphic rocks are rocks that have been chemically
altered while in the solid state from exposure to high
temperature and pressure (called recrystallization)
 Igneous rocks
• They are created when molten lava cools and
hardens.
• This means that they were the first type of
rock to appear on this planet after it finished
with its molten stage.
• They are also the most abundant type of rock
on the surface of the Earth, comprising over
80% of the crustal material.
 Igneous Composition
• Igneous rocks are mainly composed of silicate
material.
• Because magma is largely composed of only 8
elements, the major components of igneous
rocks are the following:
– silicon, oxygen, aluminum, calcium, sodium,
potassium, magnesium and iron
 Igneous Composition
 The color of the rock indicates the mineral
components if the rock.
 Light colored silicates contain, greater
amounts of sodium, potassium and calcium.
 Dark colored silicates contain greater amounts
of iron and magnesium.
 Light colored silicates are contain more silica
than dark colored silicates.
 Formation of Igneous Rocks
• Igneous rocks form from magma, but all
magma is not the same.
– A single volcano may extrude lavas exhibiting
quite different compositions.
• The process by which magma crystallizes to
form igneous rock is known as Bowen’s
reaction series.
 Igneous Rock
Igneous Rocks can be classified by where they were formed

Extrusive Rocks. Cooled quickly on the surface. An example

of an extrusive igneous rock is Basalt. Basalt is comprised of
olivine, pyroxene, and plagiocloase

Intrusive Rocks. Cooled slower below the surface. An

example is granite. Granite is often comprised of feldspar,
quartz, and mica
Igneous rock types
 Sedimentary Composition
 Sedimentary rocks form from the weathering
of existing rocks by running water, wind,
waves, glacial ice, etc.
 After the sediment is transported to the new
location, it undergoes lithification to form
sedimentary rock.
 As piles of sediment accumulate, the materials
near the bottom are compacted by the weight
of the overlaying layers, causing them to
cement.
 Sedimentary Composition
 Sedimentary rocks are a
thin discontinuous layer
in the upper portion of
the Earth’s crust.
 Fossils are found in
sedimentary rocks.
 Natural resources (coal
Utah’s Capital Reef National Park
contains layers of sedimentary rock called
and oil) come from
strata. sedimentary rocks.
 Lithification of Sediment
 The most common method of lithification is
compaction.
– The weight of layers of sediment press the grains
closer together reducing pore space.
– Shale is usually formed using this method.
 Cementation is another method of lithification.
– The cementing material are carried through a water
solution which eventually fills the pore spaces in the
rock.
– Calcite, silica and iron oxide are the most common
cements.
 Sedimentary rocks
• Sedimentary rocks are formed from sediments that are
cemented together in order to form a coherent solid.
• The different types of sedimentary rocks will depend upon
what sediments are involved and how they are cemented
together.
• Sediments can come together in one of three ways.
– The first of these is to have smaller pieces of rock come together in
some type of depositional environment, such as a lake, a beach, or
an alluvial fan. When they do, the type of rock that is formed is
known as a clastic or detrital sedimentary rock.
– Sediments can also come together from a dissolved state (ex.
chlorine ions in water) when saturation limits are reached and
precipitation occurs. This is known as a chemical
(evaporite)sedimentary rock.
– Finally, plants or animals can pull the dissolved sediments out of
solution and later precipitate them as sediment. This will form a
biogenic sedimentary rock.
common types of sedimentary rock
 Metamorphic Composition
• Metamorphic rocks are produced from
preexisting igneous, sedimentary or other
metamorphic rocks.
• Metamorphism takes place when preexisting
rocks are subjected to a chemical or physical
environment that is significantly different
from which it was initially formed.
 Types of Metamorphism
 Low-grade
metamorphism- slight
changes
– Sedimentary shale
becomes the more
compact metamorphic
Shale Slate
rock slate.
 High-grade
metamorphism-
substantial changes.
– Sedimentary bitminous
coal becomes antracite.
Bituminous Anthracite
Coal Coal
Metamorphism Settings
Two types of setting:

 Thermal Metamorphism-
The rock is intruded by
magma, and intense heat
causes the change.
 Regional Metamorphism-
Rocks undergo great
temperature and
pressure changes during
mountain building
processes (orogenic
processes).
 Metamorphic rocks
• Metamorphic rocks result when pressure, temperature,
and chemical conditions produce a change in the crystalline
shape or composition of a rock without actually melting a
rock.
• Pressure can squeeze crystals along a plane, causing them
to re-form so that the rock looks foliated in that direction.
• Increased temperature can give the atoms and molecules in
the rock greater kinetic energy, allowing the crystals to
grow bigger or change shape without going through a
melting phase.
• Changes in the chemical conditions can allow new elements
to enter the rock and react, changing the crystals atom by
atom
Metamorphic rocks
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks
 Metamorphic Rocks
Formed when rocks of another type in solid form were
chemically altered by high temperature and pressures.

Examples: Slate. Dominant minerals are clay, chlorite, mica

and quartz. Slate is metamorphized shale.

Marble. Dominant mineral is calcite. Marble is metamorphized

limestone.

Gneiss. Dominant minerals are mica quartz, and feldspar..

 Metamorphic Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks start as a collection of
lose mineral grains.

Pressure pushes the grains closer

together, eliminating void spaces. There is
no change to the grains themselves yet.

Additional pressure changes the shape of

the grains to form an interlocking lattice.

Grain sizes change as many small grains

reform into large ones. There may or
may not be a change to the chemical
composition. Note the decrease in
volume as the small grains recrystallize
into larger ones.
 The Rock Cycle
All three rock types are linked by the rock cycle.

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 But Wait!
• The schematics on the previous page describe
how the rock-types are linked by processes, but it
does not indicate:
– How does sedimentary material get transported to the deep
interior where it can be metamorphized?
– What causes uplift to move the igneous and metamorphic rocks
to the surface to be weathered?
– Where does the energy come from to drive the cycle?
Somehow there are dynamical processes moving
material through the Earth. This is the Plate
Tectonics theory
Ocean to Continent Convergence

A. convergence of plates

A D
B. subduction of oceanic
plate material

C. oceanic plate melts

C and less dense magma
B rises
D. formation of composite
volcanoes (explosive)
on the continent
The Rock Cycle
 Rock Cycle:
where the earth’s internal forces meet
the earth’s external forces (at the earth’s
surface)
Earth’s internal forcesVS.Earth’s external forces

• • the hydrosphere (HC)

moving continents (PT)
• earthquakes • atmosphere
• • erosion (wind, water, ice)
elevation of mountains
• volcanic eruptions • biosphere activities

duce a continuous cycle of rising mountains only to be

athered down and uplifted repeatedly. As a result, igne
imentary, and metamorphic rocks are created.
dimentary,
 Geology of Kenya
• In geological terms Africa is the oldest of all the
continents. It has been emergent for over 250 million
years. All the other continents are relatively recent.
• The continental drift in Africa has not been very
intense, and one can note that since Mesozoic times
Kenya has been part of an African continent occupying
tropical latitudes and bordered by an eastern ocean.
• Over these millions of years, Kenya has borne many
landscapes. Where a landscape has not been
superseded or rejuvenated by volcanism or uplift and
faulting, it has been reduced by weathering and
erosion
Geological map of Kenya
 Rock Descriptions at a Field Station
• Gross characteristics (site, weathering, ridge-
former, tor, whale-back, inselberg)
• Rock type: Igneous, Sedimentary or Metamorphic
classification
• Color - dark coloured (mafic) etc
• Mineralogy (percentage composition)
• Texture (grain size – fine , medium, course
grained)
• Primary Features (lineation, foliation, folds,
faults, vesicles, amygdules etc.)
• Formation name and age (if known)
• Contacts present in outcrop