DR D MAKARISIRA

UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE
CONTEMPORARY AND APPLIED
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
GROUP BEHAVIOUR
 What are Groups?

• Two or more individuals, interacting and

Interdependent, who have come together to
achieve particular objectives
 Group Behaviour

• Group behaviour emanates from the causes

that contribute to the group’s effectiveness.
The well structured, well defined role and
status hierarchy, able leadership, well
developed norms and strong cohesiveness a
group has, the greater is the groupthink.
(Characteristics of a good group)
 Characteristics of a group
• The smallest grp z a dyad/couple
• Grps differ in values, interests and goals
• Grps vary in duration being determined by
purpose/task or objectives
• Groupthink is defined as “the deterioration
of mental efficiency, reality testing, and
moral judgement in the interest of group
solidarity.”
• As groups function and interact with other
groups, they develop their own unique set of
characteristics including structure,
• cohesiveness,
• roles,
• norms and
• processes.
• As a result, groups may cooperate or
compete with other groups, and intergroup
competition can lead to conflict.
• Norms: the grp sets guidelines for appropriate
attitudes and bhvr (you can be expelled from
the grp when u fail to observe norms, even if
you are the best performer etc)
 Importance of Groups
• 1).Security and benefits
• 2).Status
• 3).Self-esteem
• 4).Power
• 5).Goal achievement and
• 6). Affiliation and identification
 Importance of Groups cont’d
• 1).Security
• By joining a group, individuals can reduce the
insecurity of “standing alone.” People feel
stronger, have fewer self-doubts, and are
more resistant to threats when they are part
of a group.
 Importance of Groups cont’d
• 2).Status
• Inclusion in a group that is viewed as
important by others provides recognition and
status for its members.
 Importance of Groups cont’d
• 3).Self-esteem
• Groups can provide people with feelings of
self-worth. That is, in addition to conveying
status to those outside the group,
membership can also give increased feelings
of worth to the group members themselves.
 Importance of Groups cont’d
• 4).Power
• What cannot be achieved individually often
becomes possible through group action. There
is power in numbers.
 Importance of Groups cont’d
• 5).Goal achievement
• There are times when it takes more than one
person to accomplish a particular task; there is
a need to pool talents, knowledge, or power
in order to complete a job.
• Allocation of responsibilities to members.
 Types of groups
• 1).Formal
• Those defined by the organization’s structure,
with designated work assignments establishing
tasks, and being aware of to whom you report.
• 2).Informal
• Is a group that is neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined. Natural formations
in the work environment that appear in response
to the need for social contact.
 Formal Groups

• 1).Command – determined by the

organizational chart (organogram). A group
composed of the individuals who report
directly to a given manager
• 2).Task – working together to complete a job
task. Also organizationally determined,
representing those working together to
complete a job task
 Informal Groups

• 1).Interest – affiliate to attain a specific

objective of shared interest. People not
necessarily aligned into common command or
task groups who affiliate to attain a specific
objective.
• 2).Friendship – members brought together
because they share one or more common
characteristics (ethnicity, race, church, totem
etc).
 Stages of group development
• 1).Forming
• 2).Storming
• 3).Norming
• 4).Performing
• 5).Adjourning
 Stages of group development cont’d
• 1).Forming
Uncertainty about purpose, structure, and
leadership
• 2).Storming
Intragroup conflict as members resist
constraints, who will lead and control? There
is struggle for positions and power.
• 3).Norming
Group is cohesive with strong group identity.
Cohesiveness begins and relationships form
 Stages of group development cont’d
• 4).Performing
Group fully functional and working toward
goals. Members are aware of duties and
timelines.
• 5).Adjourning
For temporary groups or non-permanent teams,
it's time to wrap it up/breaking up
Tuckman (1965) calls this stage Mourning
 Critique
of Five-Stage Model
• Group Effectiveness:
– Generally groups are more effective as they progress
– Reasons for this are complex
• Group Conflict:
– Some groups need conflict, most productive in Stage II
• Blurred Stages:
– Stages not always sequential
– Multiple stages may be taken simultaneously
– May regress a stage
Model 2: The Punctuated-Equilibrium
Model (Temporary Groups
w/Deadlines)
• Time" is key - from first meeting to official
deadline…
• Phase 1 - Meet for the first time. Inertia
follows
• Transition - Half of the time is used up -
changes occur - "get moving"
• Phase 2 - Execute the plans coming out of the
Transition
 Group Properties
• Leadership
• Roles
• Norms
• Status
• Size(social loafing)
• Composition(diversity, groups demography)
• Cohesiveness
 Group Properties cont’d
1). Roles: The set of expected behavior patterns
that are attributed to occupying a given position
in a social unit. Roles are explicit and may even
be described in a formal organizational chart, in
written job descriptions or in a contract.
•Role Identity – role’s associated attitudes and
behaviors (eg dress code, uniforms, greetings
etc).
•Role Perception – our view of how we’re
supposed to act in a given situation
 1).Roles cont’d
• Role Expectations – how others believe you
should act in a given situation
• Role Conflict – conflict experienced when
multiple roles are incompatible
 Group Properties cont’d
2).Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior within
a group that are shared by the group’s members.
Powerful means of influencing behaviour.

•Hawthorne Studies: Productivity increased

because groups were paid attention to by the
observers – not because of changes in environment
•Workers in groups do not maximize individual
economic rewards
•Group standards are set and enforced by the
group itself
 Group Properties cont’d:Norms
• Conformity
Reference Groups:
– Groups in which a person is aware of other members,
defines self as a member, believes group members to be
significant. (there is more security and identification in
group).
– Individuals try to conform to norms of these groups
 Deviant Workplace Behavior
Voluntary behavior that violates significant
organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens
the well-being of the organization or its
members

•Is likely to flourish when:

– Supported by group norms
– People are in groups
 Group Properties cont’d
3).Status: A socially defined position or rank
given to groups or group members by others
•Determined by:
– In a formal organ, the owner has highest remuneration,
power/authority to make decisions over others, and the
secretary has the least salary, and influence on policies
– A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals
– An individual’s personal characteristics
 3).Status cont’d
• Expectation states theory (Berger et al, 1986)
states that grp mmbrs want to achieve certain
goals and are willing to confer high status to
members who help the grp succeed. When
grp mmbrs first meet, they assess each
member’s capabiltiy to contribute to the
attainment of grp goals, and these
assessments form the basis for each person’s
status in the grp.
Expectation states theory (Berger
et al, 1986) cont’d
• Status of a person in grp may be determined
by specific task qualification and experience,
even being loyal.
• Diffuse status characteristics: are general
attributes of the person such as age, sex,
ethnicity, or wealth wc pple tend to associate
(somex wrongly) with ability.
• Gender and wealth can serve as diffuse status
characteristics in grps (politics) mostly to the
disadvantage of women (Forsyth, 1990).
 Impact of Status
• High-status members:
– Often have more freedom to deviate from norms
– Are better able to resist conformity pressures

• Interaction among members of groups is

influenced by status
– High status people are more assertive
– Low status members may not participate
– Group creativity may suffer
 Group Properties cont’d
• 4). Size:Smaller groups are faster at
completing tasks – members perform better
• Large groups are consistently better at
problem solving
• A).Social Loafing - tendency to expend less
effort working in a group than as an individual.
Social loafing occurs mostly in individualistic
cultures motivated by self-interest.
• B).Social facilitation- when others spur us to
greater effect
• C). Deindividuation- being part of an
anonymous grp/crowd leads/causes pple to
lose their sense of identity
• Personal identity z replaced by an
identification with the goals and actions of the
grp
• The indiv becomes less aware of his/her own
personal values and bhvr and focuses on the
grp and stn
• Involves a loss of personal responsibility that
reduces grp members’ concern abt the
consequences of their actions
 C). Deindividuation cont’d
• Social contagion: When one prsn does
something, even if it z unacceptable to most
of others, everyone else tends to do it
also(mob behaviour).
• Involves a diminished self-awareness and
increased sensitivity to what the grp z doing
• A key factor in deindividuation z anonymity:
• The more anonymous grp members are, the
less likely they are to be held accountable
• Anonymity promotes irresponsible bhvr
• READ ON ZIMBARDO(1970) EXPERIMENTS
ON DEINDIVIDUATION
 Group Properties cont’d
• D). Social inhibition-is when the presence of
others stunt performance of an individual.
Why?
• E). Social compensation-Pple sometimes
work harder in a collective setting to
compensate for others in the grp
• F). Evaluation apprehension- on simple and
lighter tasks, pple being aware that they are
being observed and judged can spur them to a
greater effort. On difficult tasks, the pressure
of being evaluated may be dangerous to their
performance. Also presence of others may be
distracting. Easy tasks do not need full
attention so will try harder to perform better.
However the distraction created by other pple
is harmful to performance on complex tasks
(Distraction-conflict model by Baron, 1986).
 Social loafing
• Causes:Equity theory – unequal distribution of
work
• Dispersion of responsibility – clouds the
relationship between individual inputs and
group output
• Prevention: Set group goals
• Increase inter-group competition
• Engage in peer evaluation
• Distribute group rewards based on members’
individual contributions
 Group Properties cont’d
5). Cohesiveness: The degree to which members
of the group are attracted to each other and
motivated to stay in the group. It refers to the
forces, both positive and negative wc cause
members to remain in a grp.
•If grp mmbrs like each other and are connected
by bonds of friendship, cohesiveness z high.
•A 2nd source of cohesiveness z the extend to wc
grp interacts effectively and harmoniously.
 5). Cohesiveness cont’d
• 3rd , pple’s motivation to remain in a grp z
influenced by the goals of the grp
• Grp cohesiveness z also affected by forces wc
discourage mmbrs to leave even if they are
dissatisfied( this z cz of lack of better other
opportunities)
• Performance-related norms are the
moderating variable for productivity and
cohesiveness
• High cohesiveness with high norms gives
higher productivity
 How to encourage cohesiveness
1. Make the group smaller
2. Encourage agreement with group goals
3. Increase the time spent together
4. Increase the status and perceived difficulty of
group membership
5. Stimulate competition with other groups
6. Give rewards to the group rather than to
individual members
7. Physically isolate the group
 Group performance
• To understand when a grp z better than an
indiv, we need to consider a variety of tasks
wc grps can perform (steiner,1972).
• Types of group activities:
• 1). Additive task
• 2). Conjunctive task
• 3). Disjunctive task
 Group performance cont’d
• Types of group activities:
• 1). Additive task
• Productivity z the sum of effort from each grp
member, eg when pushing a car.
• Larger grps tend to be more productive than
smaller grps
 Group performance cont’d
• Types of group activities:
• 2). Conjunctive task
• All grp mmbrs must succeed for the grp to
succeed eg in spying.
• A small mistake by one person endangers the
whole mission
• The least competent worker shld be waited for
• There shld be successful coordination among
membrs
 Group performance cont’d
• Types of group activities:
• 3). Disjunctive task
• Only one person needs to solve a problem for
the whole grp to succeed
• Grp performance depends on the skills and
knowledge of the most competent member
 Group performance cont’d
– Brainstorming: is when members are asked to
think of as many suggestions as they can in a short
time period. Interacting groups meet face-to-face
and rely on verbal and non-verbal interactions to
communicate.
– Generates a list of creative alternatives
– Problem: production blocking
Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
– Restricts discussion during the decision-making
process to encourage independent thinking
 Group performance cont’d
• It has the disadvantage that it z harmful to the
performance of indiv who are high in social
anxiety and uncomfortable in grp
interactions(Camacho & Paulus, 1995).
• Brainstorming grp tend to perform at
relatively similar levels, generating abt the
same number of ideas (social matching)
(Paulus & Dzindolet, 1993).
 Group decision making
• Group polarization: is when grp discussion
leads to more extreme decisions. The fllng are
explanations for grp polarization:
• 1). Persuasive arguments: pple gain more
new information as a result of listening to pro
and con arguments in the grp’s discussion.
The more numerous and persuasive the
arguments in favour of a position, the more
likely grp members are to adopt that position
 Group decision making cont’d
• Group polarization cont’d:
• 2). Social comparison and self-presentational
processes: grp mmbrs are concerned with hw
their own opinions compare to those of
others in the grp.
• They may learn that others hv similar attitudes
and others hv even stronger views than they
do
 Group decision making cont’d
• Group polarization cont’d:
• 3). Social identity processes: discussion
causes indiv to focus on their grp membership
and to identify with the grp.
• This in turn leads individuals to feel pressure
to shift their own views to conform with the
perceived norm of their grp
• Depolarization: is when grp members are
more or less evenly split on an issue, and the
discussion leads to compromise (Burnstein &
Vinokur, 1977).
 Group performance cont’d
Nominal Group Technique (NGT)
– Restricts discussion during the decision-making
process to encourage independent thinking
 Group Decision Making
• Strengths: Groups generate more complete
information,
• Increased diversity of views
• higher quality decisions
• Increased acceptance of a solution
• Generate more complete information and
knowledge
• increased acceptance of a solution
 Group Decision Making cont’d
• Weaknesses
• Takes longer/time consuming
• Conformity pressures
• Discussions can be dominated by one or a few
members
• Ambiguous responsibility for the final
outcome
 Effectiveness & Efficiency
Effectiveness:
– Accuracy – group is better than average individual but
worse than most accurate group member
– Speed – individuals are faster
– Creativity – groups are better
– Degree of Acceptance – groups are better

Efficiency: Groups are generally less efficient

Social impact Theory(Latane, 1981)
• Sggsts that the total impact of other ppl on an
indiv depend on three xristics of
observers(source of influence):
• 1).Their number,
• 2).Strength and
• 3).Immediacy
 Social impact Theory cont’d
• 1).Their number: as the # of observers
increases, so does their impact
 Social impact Theory cont’d
• 2).Strength: ie the importance or power of the
observers
• Strength z determined by factors as age and
status of observers and their relationship to
the individual
• One z likely to perform badly or worse in the
presence of his/her superiors than when with
colleagues
 Social impact Theory cont’d
• 3).Immediacy of audience: their closenes to
the individual in time and space
• An indiv performs stronger/better in a live
audience than being watched on video
monitors in the room (Borden, 1980).
 Why are some groups more effective
than others?
• 1).External conditions imposed on group
• 2).Group member resources
• 3).Group structure
• 4).Group processes
• 5).Group tasks
• 6).Outcome: Performance and satisfaction
 Why are some groups more effective
than others? Cont’d
• 1).External conditions imposed on group.
• Groups are a subset of a larger organization
consisting of the following:
• Organization Strategy
• Authority Structures
• Formal Regulations
• Organizational Resources
Human Resource Selection Process
• Performance Evaluation and Reward System
• Organizational Culture
• Physical Work Setting
 Why are some groups more effective
than others? Cont’d
• 2).Group member resources.
• A group’s potential level of performance is, to a
large extent, dependent on the resources that its
members individually bring to the group.
• – Knowledge, Skills, & Abilities - set the
parameters for what members can do and how
effectively they will perform in a group.
• – Personality Characteristics - the magnitude of
the effect of any single characteristic is small, but
taking personality characteristics together, the
consequences for group behavior are of major
significance.
 Why are some groups more effective
than others? Cont’d
• 3).Group structure
• Groups are not unorganized mobs. They have a structure that
shapes the behavior of members.
• – Formal Leadership
• – Roles (psychological contracts are important in organizations!)
• – Norms
• – Status
• – Size (social loafing)
• – Composition (diversity, group demography)
• – Cohesiveness
•
• Understand the relationship between group cohesiveness,
performance norms, and productivity ; Highly cohesive groups with
high performance norms are best
 Why are some groups more effective
than others? Cont’d
• 4).Group processes
• Synergy – a term used in Biology, is an action of
two or more substances that result in an effect
that is different from the individual summation of
these substances.
• Potential Group effectiveness + Potential Gains -
Process losses =
• Actual group effectiveness
•
• Social Facilitation Effect - Performance tends to
improve or decline in response to the presence of
others. (Interesting stuff!)
 Why are some groups more effective
than others? Cont’d

• 5).Group tasks
• Consider when to use large vs. small groups
• What type of task? Simple (routine) or
complex (non-routine) tasks?
 Why are some groups more effective
than others? Cont’d
• 6).Outcome: Performance and satisfaction
 Groupthink Symptoms
A deterioration of individual’s mental efficiency,
reality testing, and moral judgments as a result
of group pressures
Occurs when members:
Individuals may feel pressure to suppress,
withhold or modify true feelings
– Rationalize away resistance to assumptions
– Pressure doubters to support the majority
– Doubters keep silent/minimize their misgivings
– Interprets silence as a “yes” vote
 Groupshift

• Usually shift towards greater risk in decisions

made by groups
 Reducing group think
• Limit group size (not more than 10 members )
• Encourage group leaders to actively seek input
from all members and avoid expressing their
own opinions
• Appoint a “devil’s advocate”
 Leadership
• The leader z the person who has the most
impact on grp bhvr and beliefs.
• He/she initiates action, gives orders, makes
decisions, settles disputes among grp mmbrs,
encourages others, is a role model and is in
the forefront of grp activity
 Types of leadership
• 1). Formal- are found in formal organs with
organisational charts showing the official
chain of command with given guidelines on
patterns of decision making and supervision
• 2). Informal leadership- are found in
freindship grps
 Paths to leadership
• Some leaders are appointed eg in army. The
lieutenant gives orders to everyone in the
organization, bt no-one under him gives
orders to him
• In clubs or student boards, leaders are elected
• Over time grp mmbrs emerge as informal
leaders cz of constant interaction with
friends/mates. Those who contribute/talk
most in grp discussions become leaders
 Two types of activities performed
by leaders
• 1).Task leadership- concerns the
accomplishment of grp goals
• Gives sggstns, opinions and information to the
grp. Controls, shapes, directs and organises
grp in doing a task
• Leader must be knowledgeable, efficient, and
directive abt the task at hand
• In informal discussions men are likely to
emerge as task leaders (Eagly & Karau, 1991).
 Two types of activities performed
by leaders cont’d
• 2). Social leadership- focuses on the emotional
and interpersonal aspects of grp interaction
• Makes sure the grp runs smoothly in harmony
• Concerned with ppl’s feelings, uses humour to
relieve tension, encourages grp cohesiveness
• Leader must be friendly, agreeable,
conciliatory, concerned with feelings and
socially oriented
• Women are likely to emerge as social leaders
(Eagly & Karau, 1991).