Grain Molds and

Grain Molds and
Mycotoxins in Corn
Dr.Kedar Karki
Grain Mold Pathogens
• Molds are fungi that grow by producing

long filaments called hyphae (Figure 1). In
general, hyphae are important to the
survival and dispersal of fungi. Hyphal
growth allows the fungus to colonize a
food source (e.g., a corn kernel) as well as
to grow from one food source to another;
e.g., from root to root through soil or from
one kernel to an adjacent kernel in a pile
of stored grain
• It is usually masses of spores that give the

mold a characteristic color. Spores are
dispersed passively by wind and rain.
Insects can serve as vectors of these fungi
usually by transporting the spores on the
surface of their bodies; this is particularly
important within grain storage bins.
• Managing grain storage insects can

reduce contamination by grain molds and
mycotoxins. Most species of grain mold
fungi are well adapted to the conditions of
grain production and postharvest handling
and storage.
• They can survive long periods in storage

facilities making sanitation of the facility an
important part of a grain mold
management plan.
• The most striking external symptom of

grain mold is the presence of the mold
itself. The degree of growth on the kernels
and the appearance of the mold (e.g.,
color and density) varies with the species
of mold, the quality of the grain being
colonized, and the prevailing
environmental conditions
• Aspergillus species tend to be more prevalent

when there is drought during the latter half of the
growing season. Fusarium verticillioides is
associated with a high proportion of corn kernels
under most growing conditions but Fusarium ear
and grain mold develops more often when cool
wet weather during silking is followed by hot dry
weather. Gibberella grain mold is more prevalent
in hybrids with tight husks. Unlike F.
verticillioides, F. graminearum is rarely seed-
borne.
Common Grain Molds
• Fusarium Grain Mold
Fusarium grain mold is probably the most common grain
mold pathogen in Nebraska. It is caused by three seed-
borne species of Fusarium: F. verticillioides, F.
proliferatum, and F. subglutinans. The role of seed-borne
inoculum to the development of grain mold is uncertain.
Disease symptoms and severity vary with hybrid
genetics and environmental conditions. Moldy kernels
may be clumped at the tip of the ear or randomly
dispersed across the entire ear. Infected kernels may be
pink or show a white starburst pattern radiating from the
top of the kernel.
Gibberella Grain Mold
• Gibberella grain mold is also common in

Nebraska. It is caused by the fungus
Gibberella zeae; the asexual stage of the
pathogen is Fusarium graminearum.
Unlike F. verticillioides, F. graminearum is
rarely seed-borne. Disease symptoms and
severity vary with hybrid genetics and
environmental conditions. Infected kernels
are usually clumped at the tip of the ear
and the mold is reddish in color.
Penicillium Grain Mold
•
Penicillium grain mold is probably the second most
common grain mold pathogen in Nebraska. It may be
caused by several species of Penicillium, including P.
oxalicum and P. chrysogenum. Which species is the
most prevalent in Nebraska is unknown. Penicillium
species are well adapted to survival in many types of
storage facility. Kernel infection can occur in the field or
in storage. Symptoms range from external mold
development to internal discoloration ("Blue Eye") of the
embryo. Symptoms caused by Penicillium are easy to
confuse with those caused by Aspergillus glaucus.
Aspergillus Grain Mold
• Aspergillus grain mold is probably the least

common grain mold pathogen in Nebraska. At
least three species of Aspergillus can cause
grain mold in corn, including A. flavus, A.
parasiticus, and A. glaucus. Like Penicillium
species, Aspergillus species are very well
adapted to survival in many types of storage
facility. Infection of kernels can occur in the field
or in storage. Also like Penicillium, symptoms
range from mold development on the surface of
kernels to internal discoloration ("Blue Eye") of
the embryo.
Fusarium
Penicillium
Diplodia
Mycotoxins
• The nature of the toxic effects caused by mycotoxins

varies greatly. Some mycotoxins cause acute toxicities
(i.e., immediate effect) where a certain organ (e.g., liver,
kidney) loses complete or partial function; other
mycotoxins cause chronic toxicities (i.e., long-term)
resulting in symptoms such as weight loss and
reproductive dysfunction. Still other mycotoxins impair
the immune system predisposing the affected animal to
a variety of infections or other ailments. For some
mycotoxins damage is not permanent and affected
animals can recover from ingestion if the contaminated
feed is removed from the diet.
Table I. Toxigenic fungi, their metabolites and target effects.
Toxin
Grain Mold Fungus Produced Toxic Effects Species Affected
Aspergillus flavus aflatoxin acute toxicity (liver) many

liver cancer human
immune suppression humans, animals
Aspergillus alutaceus ochratoxin acute toxicity (kidney) swine, poultry
cancer human
Fusarium fumonisin blind staggers horse
verticillioides pulmonary edema swine
esophageal cancer human
Fusarium trichothecenes acute toxicity many (not ruminant
graminearum immune suppression s)
many
vomitoxin acute toxicity many
zearalenone reproductive dysfunction swine
Penicillium spp. ochratoxin acute toxicity (kidney) swine, poultry
Grain Mold and Mycotoxin
Management
• Preharvest
Hybrids that are less susceptible to grain mold should be
planted where available in areas with perennial grain
mold and/or mycotoxin problems. Identifying the
prevalent grain mold pathogens will be necessary prior
to selecting the appropriate hybrids. After planting, the
overall strategy for grain mold management is to
minimize plant stress during and after silking. Common
stresses associated with grain mold include: high
moisture in mid-to-late season after a dry early season,
moisture stress early in season and during grain fill, high
leaf disease pressure, and insect damage.
Post harvest
•
All grain storage facilities should be
monitored regularly to detect grain mold
development. Grain molds rarely develop
uniformly throughout a storage unit;
development of hot spots is common.
Monitoring requires a systematic sampling
plan to account for the unique design
characteristics of each storage facility.
Ensure Proper Storage
Conditions
•
To minimize the potential for mold growth and mycotoxin
production, grain moisture content should be reduced to
less than 15 percent within 48 hours after the grain is
harvested. This may be difficult to achieve in many
storage facilities, especially larger capacity elevators. A
storage temperature of less than 40° F should be
maintained. Good air circulation throughout the storage
bin is important. Storage conditions optimal for
maintaining grain quality will minimize mold development
and mycotoxin contamination.
Minimize Mechanical Damage
•
Harvest and postharvest grain handling
should be designed to minimize
mechanical damage. Although most mold
pathogens can directly penetrate plant
tissues, mechanical damage provides
additional entry sites, facilitating infection
and spread from kernel to kernel during
shipping and storage.
Key management steps to minimize grain mold and mycotoxin
contamination.
2.Ensure proper storage conditions — grain moisture, temperature, relative

humidity
3.Minimize mechanical damage — harvest and postharvest shipping and handling
4.Minimize insect damage — pre-harvest and postharvest storage
5.Plant tolerant hybrids — some tolerant hybrids available
6.Sanitation of storage facility — critical management practice
7.Chemical management — propionic acid, mineral oils

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Grain Molds and

• Molds are fungi that grow by producing

• It is usually masses of spores that give the

• Managing grain storage insects can

• They can survive long periods in storage

• The most striking external symptom of

• Aspergillus species tend to be more prevalent

• Gibberella grain mold is also common in

• Aspergillus grain mold is probably the least

• The nature of the toxic effects caused by mycotoxins

Aspergillus flavus aflatoxin acute toxicity (liver) many

2.Ensure proper storage conditions — grain moisture, temperature, relative

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