PSYC6391 BRAIN AND

COGNITION
WEEK 9: INTRODUCTION

Dr Ruben Azevedo Online Office hours:

Keynes A3.08
Wednesdays 10-12
r.a.Teixeira-azevedo@kent.ac.uk
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 INTRODUCTIONS

• Who are your lecturers (for the Autumn term)?

• Dr Ruben Azevedo (module convenor Autumn term)
• Dr Luigi Tamè (module convenor Spring term)
• Dr Andrew Russ
• Dr Maria Gallagher
• Prof Gurprit S. Lall
• Dr Zara Bergstrom

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 WEEK 9: LECTURE OVERVIEW

• Module organisation:
• Learning outcomes
• Teaching programme
• Assessment
• Seminars
• Resources & study support (Moodle)

• Managing your own success:

• In-class conduct & opportunities

• What is Cognitive Psychology

• The Cognitive Approach 9
 LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of structures and functions of the

human nervous system and of their role in human behaviour, emotion and
cognition.

• Demonstrate knowledge of the scientific historical context in which biological

and cognitive psychology evolved and how the field of cognitive neuroscience
has emerged.

• Demonstrate a knowledge of cognitive and biological theories relevant to

psychology, and an understanding the contributions made by the different
approaches and research methods used in biological and cognitive psychology.

• Demonstrate understanding of current debates in cognitive

psychology/neuroscience and of how cognitive neuroscience interfaces with
everyday life. 10
 PROFESSIONAL
ATTRIBUTES

• A number of professional skills will be acquired in this module through

attending lectures, actively participating seminars, and reading and
writing about cognitive psychology/neuroscience research. The module
will develop students’ skills particularly in the areas of independent
research, communication, and intellectual curiosity and creativity.

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME

• One 2-hour lecture per week in each term

• Most weeks are based on the course textbook (exceptions: weeks 16,17,19)
• Explanation of key issues
• Exercises and ‘Taking it Further’

• Five 1-hour seminars per term

• Autumn term weeks 10, 12, 15, 17 and 19
• Spring term weeks 26, 28, 31, 33, and 35

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 9: Introduction and course organisation (RA/LT)

• Week 10: Anatomy and physiology of the nervous system (AR)

• Week 11: Neural development & plasticity (MG)

• Week 12: Evolution and genetics (RA)

• Week 13: Study week

• Week 14: The biology of primal urges (AR)

• Week 15: Research methods in biological psychology (AR)

• Week 16: Psychophysiological measurements (RA)

• Week 17: Psychopharmacology (GL)

• Week 18: Visual Perception (LT)

• Week 19: The cognitive neuroscience of long-term memory (ZB)

• Week 20: Multiple-choice exam (20% of module grade) 13

 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
SPRING TERM

• Week 25: Introduction and overview of autumn/spring lectures (RA/LT)

• Week 26: Neural Networks (AHJ)

• Week 27: Face Perception (MB)

• Week 28: Vestibular System (MG)

• Week 29: Study week

• Week 30: Interoception (RA)

• Week 31: Pain and placebo effect (BB)

• Week 32: Altered brain function and cognition (LS)

• Week 33: Somatosensory system and motor control (LT)

• Week 34: Neurocognitive approaches to depression and psychosis (AM)

• Week 35: Language (HF)

• Week 36: Revision Lecture (All lectures) 14

WHAT DO YOU ALREADY KNOW ABOUT
BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY?

1. What is meant by the term “biological psychology”?

ANSWER: Biological psychology is a research approach that

investigates the biological basis of human behaviour through
relating actions and experiences to genetics and physiology

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 10: Anatomy and physiology of the nervous system (AR)

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 11: Neural development & plasticity (MG)

Brain development

Brain maturation Brain plasticity after damage

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 12: Evolution and genetics (RA)

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 14: The biology of primal urges (AR)

Reproductive
Hunger Thirst Behaviours

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 15: Research methods in biological psychology (AR)

fMRI EEG MEG TMS

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 16: Psychophysiological measurements (RA)

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 17: Psychopharmacology (GL)

Nerve impulse and Action potential

Drugs

Synaptic transmission

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 18: Visual Perception (LT)

Physiology of the eye

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 19: The cognitive neuroscience of long-term memory (ZB)

Accurate
recognition

False
recognition

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
AUTUMN TERM

• Week 20: Multiple-choice exam (20% of module grade)

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
SEMINARS

Autumn term Spring term

PYSC6391 Cohort 1 Cohort 2

Brain and Cognition
Seminars

PYSC6392
Personality and Social Cohort 2 Cohort 1
Psychology Seminars

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 TEACHING PROGRAMME:
BRAIN AND COGNITION
SEMINARS

• Autumn term weeks 10, 12, 15, 17 and 19

• Spring term weeks 26, 28, 31, 33, and 35

• Seminar group allocation:

• Details should be in your timetable
• Can I change my seminar group?

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 AIMS OF THE
SEMINARS

Gain familiarity with the major aspects of empirical research in Brain and Cognition

By reading, presenting, and discussing recent research papers and own research
ideas, you will
a) Learn about a few contemporary research topics
b) Learn to recognize the strengths and limitations of research methods in
psychological research
c) Generate new research ideas that can overcome the potential limitations of the
current studies (critical essay).
 STRUCTURE

Seminar 1
• Introduction to the seminar format and topic
• Presentation of empirical paper by seminar leader as model for students
• Small group and class discussions
• Tips and instructions on effective presentations

Seminars 2-5
• Group presentation of empirical paper by students (15 to 20 mins)
• Groups of 3 or 4 students
• Small group and class discussions (15 mins)
• Feedback from audience and seminar leader (5 to 10 mins)
• Time to pitch your ideas for critical evaluation (10 mins)
VALUE AND IMPORTANCE OF
PRESENTING

• Presentation skills are required in almost every field and job

• Sense of achievement and empowerment by educating
others
• Developing and applying group working skills
• We will all provide positive feedback
• Overcoming stage fright
Formative feedback!
- 42% terrified by the prospect of speaking in public
Which means, no mark!
(Gallup, 2005)
- 23% afraid of dying
- It is normal
- It is desirable
- It is a shot of adrenaline
- Getting “psyched up” for a good effort
 GROUP DISCUSSION
BREAK UP IN GROUPS OF 3 OR 4 STUDENTS

Theoretical and/or applied value of the paper and findings

• How does the paper make a meaningful contribution to the field?
• Why is this paper important or interesting?

Methods and analyses

• What are the strengths and limitations of the studies reported in
the paper?
• Did the researchers make use of appropriate methodological
and/or statistical tools to test the hypotheses?

Future research
• CanPlease
you think of any follow-up studies? Unaddressed questions?
make the most of these sessions for your spring essay!
• Can you think of ways to address the limitations?
Take notes!
Seminars will not be recorded!
 ASSESSMENT

• Multiple-choice and brain labelling exam at the end of the Autumn

term (20%); week 20.

• Exam on seminar series (40%): 2000 words critical essay in Spring

Term.

• A two-hour exam at the end of the academic year (40%)

• Format to be confirmed

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 CRITICAL ESSAY (SPRING)

Critical essay question

Choose a topic among the ones discussed in the Brain and Cognition seminar
series and critically evaluate the strengths and limitations of the experimental
approach(es) adopted to answer a key psychological question. You can focus
on only one or several empirical articles discussed during the chosen seminar
series. Your essay should include a literature review, where you define the
general framework of the topic, including the most relevant literature, with a
strong critical evaluation component. You should also propose how the
identified limitations of the study/studies considered can be overcome.

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 CRITICAL ESSAY (SPRING)

Theoretical and/or applied value of the paper and findings

• How does the paper make a meaningful contribution to the field?
• Why is this paper important or interesting?

Methods and analyses

• What are the strengths and limitations of the studies reported in
the paper?
• Did the researchers make use of appropriate methodological
and/or statistical tools to test the hypotheses?

Future research
• Can you think of any follow-up studies? Unaddressed questions?
• Can you think of ways to address the limitations?
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 CRITICAL ESSAY (SPRING)

Seminars will not be recorded!

• Be present

• Take notes

• Engage in the discussions

• Ask questions

• Do additional readings

You can, and in most cases should (!), discuss the

limitations/strengths/proposals mentioned during the seminars but to attract
higher marks you may want to show independent reading and thinking by, at
least, complementing your discussion with additional reflections/proposals. 35
 RESOURCES

• Lecture slides - available on Moodle ~24 hours before the lecture

• Lecture recordings

• Readings for seminars available in Moodle

• Extra recommended reading etc

• See Moodle link to reading lists and Module Outline
• Make your own literature search based on provided readings (e.g.
seminar reading)

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 A NOTE ABOUT THE
TEXTBOOKS

• Lectures and textbook complement rather than mirror each

other
• The textbook is a supplement to the lectures to provide
background, further information on related issues etc.
• Lectures are not a summary of the textbook

• Why have lectures otherwise? :)

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 RESOURCES

• Kalat, J.W. (2013). Biological psychology (Cengage Technology 11 th

Edition). Cengage Learning.
• Buy paperback-eBook package at Uni bookshop
• You can also buy and download individual chapters online for ~ £2.99 each
• http://www.cengagebrain.co.uk/
• Companion website

• Newer (and older) versions (12th and 13th) are also ok. They are very similar ...
Try to source cheaply from past students or internet…

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 RESOURCES

• You can even ‘borrow’ it online for free from the library…

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 MOODLE

• Access to module resources any time anywhere

• Lecture slides
• Audio recordings from lectures (but not seminars!)

• All PSYC6391 materials in one place

• Clickable web links

• Discussion opportunities
• Frequently asked questions
• General announcements
• Discussion per lecture topic
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 HOW CAN YOU HELP
YOURSELF?

• Study groups

• Don’t be afraid to ask questions if you’re unsure (in class/ on Moodle…)

• Learn something about Psychology outside the classroom

• Use the RPS scheme wisely
• RES (http://www.kent.ac.uk/psychology/ug/modules/res.html )
• Café Psychology (see Moodle)
• Volunteering
• Part-time/ Summer jobs

• And ENJOY yourself!

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WHAT IS COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY?
 WHAT IS COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY?

• the study of "... all the processes by which the sensory input is
transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used. It is
concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of
relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations. […] Given such a
sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a
human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomenon is a
cognitive phenomenon.” – Neisser, 1966
 RIGHT NOW YOU ARE…

LOOKING VISUAL PERCEPTION

LISTENING AUDITORY PERCEPTION

PAYING
ATTENTION
ATTENTION

UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE SKILLS

LEARNING MEMORY ENCODING

REMEMBERING MEMORY RETRIEVAL

… …
 WHY LEARN ABOUT
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY?

 It provides you with insights about those attributes that help make us human;
thought, emotion, sensation, memory, language and consciousness

 It will help you understand the behaviour of those with neurological/psychiatric

problems

 It teaches you about the strengths and weaknesses of the scientific method
 A BIT OF HISTORY

Historical events - 1950s – 1980s

 Increasing interest in the mind

 Increasing interest in language

(psycholinguistics)
• Disillusionment with behaviourist explanations

 Reduced influence of Freudian psychology

 Development of computers
• mind-computer metaphor
 BASIC ASSUMPTIONS OF
COGNITIVISM

• Lab-based science
• Information processing approach
(mind as computer)
• Aim: to understand internal
processes occurring between
stimulus and response.
 INFORMATION-PROCESSING
APPROACH

Stimulus How many stages/processes?

What are the computations performed

ATTENTION for each stage/process?

Are stages serial/parallel?

PERCEPTION

Is information processed in
THOUGHT bottom-up/top-down way?
PROCESSES
Which situations involve different
processes?
DECISION

RESPONSE/
ACTION
 MODELS OF COGNITION

• We use empirical data to inform models, and test

predictions from models with new data

From Ward, Chapter 1

 HOW TO UNDERSTAND
COGNITION?

Manipulate • Measure output:

• Responses
input • Reaction time
• Accuracy
 HOW TO UNDERSTAND
COGNITION?

Manipulate  Measure and/or • Measure output:

manipulate brain • Responses
input processes
• Reaction time
• Accuracy
 COGNITIVE SCIENCE
APPROACHES

• Experimental Cognitive Psychology: experiments on healthy individuals –

behaviour is measured to shed light on cognitive processes

• Cognitive Neuropsychology: experiments on brain-damaged patients to

increase understanding of cognitive processes

• Computational Cognitive Science: developing computational models to

explain cognition

• Cognitive Neuroscience: trying to understand how cognition is implemented

in the brain, typically using measures of brain activity
 COMMON COGNITIVE
NEUROSCIENCE QUESTIONS

• Does brain operate as one whole or

in modular way?

• What are the roles of different

brain regions and neural processes
in different aspects of cognition?

• How is information transmitted

and processed across stages/brain
regions?
 CROSS-DISCIPLINARY APPROACHES

Social Cognitve Neuroscience: Bridging the gap between cognitive

and social psychology

• Why are the social and cognitive aspects of behaviour traditionally

studied separately?
• Example: theories of basic visual perception should perhaps be
constrained by information about the social world?

Visual processing areas are affected by perceived trustworthiness (Adolphs, 2002)

 KENT AREAS OF EXPERTISE

• Memory and cognitive control

• Social cognition and language

• Emotion and cognition

• Face perception and recognition

• Enhancing cognition by brain stimulation

• Body perception and awareness

• And more!
 COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY/ NEUROSCIENCE
METHODS AT KENT
 WHAT’S THE SETTING FOR
COGNITIVE RESEARCH?

Setting Purpose Strengths/Weaknesses

Naturalistic basic fact-finding √ a priori hypotheses not required

(anthropology) √ strong ecological validity
X prone to bias
X cannot establish causation
Quasi- to establish correlation, √ can be applied to any ‘real-world’
Experimental often via formal problem
(forensic statistical analysis √ useful source for new hypotheses
psychology) X correlation does not infer causation
X difficult to control nuisance
variables
Experimental to establish cause √ can hold all factors constant apart
(“hard” and effect by testing from the one that is manipulated
sciences) predictions √ provides firm grounds for
falsification
X low ecological validity
 IS COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
ECOLOGICALLY VALID?

• Why investigate cognition under artificial, laboratory conditions?

• How do we define real-life complexity?
 APPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY

In what ways does basic cognitive

research impact on our everyday
lives?
• Commercial: e.g. products, advertising,
• Engineering: Improved visual lay-out of
instrumentation panels, placement of
signs in traffic
• Judicial: Improving the face recognition
skills of police officers and crime
witnesses
• Educational: best techniques for learning
• Societal: Understanding how social media
misinformation becomes encoded into
memory and shape behaviour
 COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE
APPLICATIONS

• Biomarkers of neurocognitive disease

• “Mind reading” – legal and clinical contexts
• https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/10/arti
ficial-intelligence-learning-read-your-mind-and
-display-what-it-sees

• TV - Owen Lab - Western University (uwo.ca)

• Artificial intelligence
• solving lots of important societal and medical
problems!
• https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-0
3348-4
• Why Google DeepMind Is Putting AI on the Ps
ychologist's Couch (singularityhub.com)
 CLINICAL APPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY/NEUROSCIENCE

- Cognitive therapies usually follow cognitive theories

For example, cognitive research has helped establish that hemi-spatial

neglect is an attentional rather than sensory deficit, which in turn has
informed therapy
 SUMMARY OF INTRO

• Cognitive Psychology/Neuroscience: understanding the internal

computations happening in your mind/brain
• Basic science with implications for other disciplines and society

• Next part: the cognitive “approach”

• Methods and logic underlying cognitive psych/neuroscience
THE COGNITIVE
APPROACH
 BEHAVIOURAL MEASURES

Manipulate • Measure output:

• Responses
input • Reaction time
• Accuracy
 REACTION TIME (RT)

• Time (in milliseconds) between the presentation of a stimulus and the

production of a motor response

• Primarily used for:

• Studying nature of mental processes and their underlying structures
• Study the reaction process by manipulating the stimulus/response

• Benefits:
• Can be used to probe the system when it’s working well (successful, accurate
performance)
• Sensitive measure of changes in mental operations
 COGNITIVE STAGES THEORY

• Cognition involve a series of component processes, that are conducted

sequentially, that each takes time

• Sum of this time = RT

• Can manipulate tasks, stimuli, etc. and measure RTs to provide information
about the different stages
Recognise?

Visual Conceptual Episodic Selecting

processing processing Memory response
 DONDERS’ SUBTRACTION
METHOD

• Donders (1868) “On the Speed of Mental Processes”

• Isolate the duration of a critical process by comparing RTs
across tasks presumed to differ in the presence of a single stage
HOW LONG DOES EACH COMPONENT TAKE?

• Can be used to time components underlying choice reaction

time tasks (i.e. multiple stimuli and responses)

• Task contains 3 components:

Stimulus 1 Stimulus 2
1. Stimulus discrimination
If Stimulus 1 appears, press button A
2. Response selection
If Stimulus 2 appears, press button B
3. Response execution
 HOW LONG DOES EACH
COMPONENT TAKE?

• Two more tasks to answer this question

Go/No go task:
Stimulus 1 Stimulus 2
If Stimulus 1 appears, press button A
If Stimulus 2 appears, do not press

Stimulus discrimination and response

execution, but no response selection
 HOW LONG DOES EACH
COMPONENT TAKE?

• Two more tasks to answer this question

Simple RT task:
Stimulu Stimulu
s
If any stimulus appears,spress button A

Response execution, but no stimulus discrimination or response

selection
 HOW LONG DOES EACH
COMPONENT TAKE?

• Let’s assume that each task takes:

• Choice RT task (SD+RS+RE): 800ms
• Go/no go task (SD+RE): 500ms
• Simple RT task (RE): 200ms

• Stimulus Discrimination?
• Response Selection?
• Response Execution?
 PROBLEMS WITH THE
SUBTRACTION METHOD

• Strong assumptions about sequence of processes involved

• Assumption of “pure insertion”

• Assumes components don’t interact
• But: components of a task may not be performed in the same way when
new components are added (Sternberg, 1966)
 ADDITIVE FACTOR LOGIC
(STERNBERG, 1969)

• Sternberg manipulated the number of times a component occurred across

levels of variables instead of comparing tasks with different components
• Determine time of component by comparing levels
 EXAMPLE

• How long does it take to scan through short-term

memory?

Memory set items Probe item

R R
 EXAMPLE

• How long does it take to scan through short-term

memory?

Memory set items Probe item

LG Q
 EXAMPLE

• How long does it take to scan through short-term

memory?

Memory set items Probe item

SNP D
 EXAMPLE

• How long does it take to scan through short-term

memory?

Memory set items Probe item

BKVJ B
 EXAMPLE

• How long does it take to scan through short-term

memory?

Memory set items Probe item

LSCYH Y
 EXAMPLE

Trial Memory Probe Accuracy RT

set
1 R R Y 300
2 LG Q Y 400
3 SNP D Y 500
4 BKVJ B Y 600
5 LSCYH Y N 700

Sternberg’s (1969) four stage STM scanning model

Encode Scan and Decision Motor

target compare with (y/n) response
probe memory set
 ADDITIVE OR INTERACTIVE?

• By using multiple factors, we can distinguish additive (independent) from

interactive (non-independent) effects

Factor B: visual clarity Factor A: number of letters

Encode Scan and Decision Motor

target compare with (y/n) response
probe memory set
 ADDITIVE OR INTERACTIVE?

• By using multiple factors, we can distinguish additive (independent) from

interactive (non-independent) effects

Factor B: visual clarity Factor A: number of letters

Encode Scan and Decision Motor

target compare with (y/n) response
probe memory set
ANY QUESTION?

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