Special Structures

Space frames
Structural systems
• Conventional systems
• Beams
• Columns
• Trusses
• Portal frames
Structural systems - Beams
Structural systems - Columns
Structural
systems –
Trusses
Structural systems - Trusses
• Triangular
• Pin jointed
• No bending
• Pure compression or tension or both
• Light weight
• Can span larger distances
Structural systems – Portal frames
Conventional Structural Systems vs Space
Structures
• Two dimensional
• Interconnected members – Purlins – secondary – load transfer

• Integrated load sharing

• No principal member
• Failure of a member does not mean failure of system
• 3D
• Economical
Space structures - Definition
A space structure is a structural system in the form of a three
dimensional assembly of elements (as opposed to a continuous
surface) resisting loads which can be applied at any point, inclined at
any angle to the surface of the structure and acting in any direction.

A space frame is a structural system assembled of linear elements so

arranged that forces are transferred in a three – dimensional manner.
Individual members – can be rolled, extruded or fabricated sections.
History of space structures

Space frames Geodesic

Timber Alexander Prefabricated
Gustave structures in
Domes Graham Bell systems
Eiffel algae

Middle
1889 1907 1940 1940
ages
History
 Space
structures

Skeleton – Stressed
Suspended
braced skin
Skeleton braced frameworks / latticed
frameworks / space frames / reticulated structures
Skeleton braced
frameworks

Zero Gaussian
Synclastic Anticlastic
curvature

Eg. Hyperbolic
Eg. domes Eg. Grids
parabola
Skeleton braced frameworks / latticed
frameworks / space frames / reticulated structures
 Stressed skin
systems

Folded plates Grids Domes Barrel vaults

Materials for space frames
• Timber
• Connections
• Steel
• Ideal material
• Aluminium
• Stresses skin
• Resistance to torsion
• Concrete
• Prestressing and pre casting
• Not widely used
• Plastics
• Very low Young Modulus
• Stressed skin
Advantages of space frames
• Made at site – good quality control – can overcome unskilled labour shortage
– mass production – quick construction – semi skilled labour.
• Easy construction – small elements – easy transport – saving time.
• Configuration leads to lightness – 15 times lighter than concrete
• Large spans – economical – only solution
• Aesthetic value – freedom of form
• More than sufficient rigidity – columns and elements can be changed
• Can resist large loads – unsymmetrical loading
• Built in reserve strength – can be overloaded.
• Do not collapse rapidly – fire, earthquake or explosion
Advantages of space frames
• Large kinds of members – factory made – still lesser variability – lesser
construction costs.
• Can use non structural materials – Aluminum and plastic
• Formwork is not necessary.
• Services can be hidden behind multi-layered structures – can be done
before fabrication.
• Low deflection – even suitable for sensitive places
• Demountable
Disadvantages
• Too much simplicity – too many joints
• Cost of joints
• Expensive hoisting equipment
• Required camber for drainage
• Problems of production and overdesign
• Accuracy
• Falsework
• Design calculations
• Eccentricity
• Attention to the field
Need for skeletal framework
Varied shapes and
forms – visual beauty
– simplicity –
architectural
expression.
Single layer grid systems
• 2D structure
• Rigid connections
• Ability to disperse heavy
loads
• Girders which are not
supported by columns at
either ends

The Great Court, British

Museum, London
Single layer grid systems
• Grid – two or more sets of parallel beams intersecting each other at some
angle and loaded by forces which are normal to the plane of network and
moments whose axes line lie in the plane.
• Produces bending and torsion
• Load spreads in all directions
• By bending – bending rigidity
• Torsional and shearing rigidity
Minor importance
• To increase bending rigidity
- Double layer system
 Grid
systems

Double
Single layer
layer

Plane Space Lattice

Two way Three way Four way Space

Rectangular Triangular

Diagonal Hexagonal
Single layer plane grids
• Two way
Rectangular
• Intersecting beams – perpendicular
• Supported along four sides
Diagonal grids
• Stress distribution is better in diagrid
• Diagrid have beams of varying length, hence varying
relative stiffness (EI/L)
• Hence shorter corner beams become intermediate
supports for longer beams
• This leads to reduction in mid span moments
• Also have lesser deflections
Single layer plane grids – Two way grids -
rectangular vs diagrids
Diagonal girds
• Most economical – each span divided into three or four parts – limit
to provide larger spacing.
Triangular and circular grids
 Single layer plane grids
• Three way – better stress distribution
• four way – superpositions of
rectangular grids
Single layer plane grids
• Structural height to span –
• 1:30 – for rectangular grids;
• 1:40 – diagonal grids
• Single layer grid – precast or in situ concrete, steel, 12 to 20 m
• Supported to load bearing walls or ring beam supported on columns
• Preferred to have overhangs
• Steel sections – plain or castellated I section or tubular sections
• Welding is preferred
• Concrete – rib form – slab thickness 75 to 100 mm
• Ferrocement
• Post tensioned prestressed members
Single layer space grids
• Flat grid folded once or several times
• Mostly welded and of diagonal type
• Gable ties prevent opening up and take the
thrust
• Maximum span – 100m
• Steel – rolled I sections
• Welding is done at ground level and lifted
using cranes
Double layer grids
• Two plane grids – top and bottom – parallel to each
other – connected by diagonal or vertical members
• Types – lattice and space grids
• Lattice – both top and bottom horizontal members
are in the same vertical plane
• Space – Converse
• Thick lines – top layer; Thin lines – bottom layer;
dashed – inclined members
• Nodular (proprietary) or modular (prefabricated)
• Two way and three way
Double layer grids
Double layer grids
Examples
Two way
space grids
Square on square – Square on square offset
Square on diagonal square & Triangle on
triangle offset
Comparison of forces,
stresses and weight of
various configurations
Proportioning of the grid
Joint systems
Importance:
Final commercial success relies on the joints effectiveness and
simplicity
10-25% of the total amount of the steel
Domes – small angle between members – spherical bolted – large size –
50% of the total steel
Role of nodes – to be in 3D position and resist internal forces
Domes
• Maximum area with minimum surface
• Curved in two directions
• Loads induce axial loads
• Pantheon Dome 120 AD
Types of braced domes
• Frame or skeleton – single layer dome
• Truss type – double layer dome
• Extremely rigid – greater resistance to buckling
• Stressed skin type
• Covering – integral part of structural system
• Formed surface type
• Bent sheets – interconnected along edges
Geodesic dome
• Refinements of lamella domes
• Member length – Variation – small – large span and complicated of
bracings – easy in prefab
• Regular network – uniform stress distribution

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Geodesic domes
• Formed on the faces of a spherical icosahedron
• Exploded on a spherical surface can be divided into 20 equilateral
spherical triangles – max possible
Geodesic domes
• Each of these triangles can be subdivided into six triangles by drawing
medians.
• Medians will follow great circles.
• 15 great circles possible
• Members are usually straight forming the chords of the arcs
Geodesic domes
• Primary type of bracing – insufficient –
slenderness ratio of braces
• Secondary braces – frequency – resulting triangles
not equilateral.
• No. of modules – depend on span
Geodesic domes
• Members to lie on medians – preferred – which follow great circles –
uniform stress distribution
• 6 triangles interconnected to form hexagons and a minimum of 12
pentagons
• Pin joints – unstable – rigid joints preferred.
Cable suspended roof structures
• Suspension bridges – 100 years –
steel
• Other materials – even older
• Suspended roofs / buildings – 40
years
• Inspiration – spiders web – tension
member action
• Animal skins – tents
Cable suspended roof structures - need
• Need to cover large areas –
for aesthetic purposes;
economy
• Principles of cable suspension
– construction of roof –
Colosseum – 70 AD
• Raleigh Arena – US – 1953
Cable suspended roof structures – load
transfer
• Loads from roof - usually – transferred by direct stresses or bending
or combination
• Tensile structures – only tension – uniform stress development –
effective and full use of area – no stress reduction due to buckling
• Leading to optimum usage
 Tensile structures - types
• Cable suspended roofs
• Cables – principal load carrying elements
• Membrane structures
• Membrane forces – no bending
• Tensegritic structures
• Continuous tension and discontinuous
compression members
Cable suspended structures
• Steel cables – economical for very
large spans also
• Principal supporting elements –
tension members – draped around
anchorages
Cable suspended roofs:
• Swimming pools, exhibition halls,
stadia – economy is not the
criteria
• Industrial buildings, airports –
cheaper
Cable suspended structures
Advantages
• Better acoustics and ventilation
• Higher factor of safety against
fire than trusses
• Better handling of differential
settlements
Concerns
• Wind – resonance
Types of cable networks
• Cable supported
• Deck is supported girders / trusses – supported by cables
• Cable suspended
• Carries the roof load directly – primary structural function
• Cable stays
• Roofs are supported from masts and pylons