SQL

Structured Query Language

SQL comprises both data definition and data manipulation

languages. Using the data definition properties of SQL, one
can design and modify database schema, whereas data
manipulation properties allows SQL to store and retrieve data
from database.
 SQL
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
– Create/alter/drop tables and their attributes
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
– Query one or more tables
– Insert/delete/modify tuples in tables
 Table name Attribute names

Tables in SQL
Product

PName Price Category Manufacturer

Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks

Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks

SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon

MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

Tuples or rows
 Tables Explained
• The schema of a table is the table name and
its attributes:
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manfacturer)

• A primary key is an attribute whose values

are unique & not null;
we underline a primary key
Product(PName, Price, Category, Manfacturer)
 Domain Types in SQL
 char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified
length n.
 varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-
specified maximum length n.
 int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-
dependent).
 smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the
integer domain type).
 numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified
precision of p digits, with n digits to the right of decimal
point.
 real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision
floating point numbers, with machine-dependent precision.
 float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision
of at least n digits.
 Tables Explained
• A tuple = a record
– Restriction: all attributes are of atomic type

• A table = a set of tuples

– Like a list…
– …but it is unorderd:
no first(), no next(), no last().
 DDL
Commands
 Create Table
 An SQL relation is defined using the create table
command:
create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn,
(integrity-constraint1),
...,
(integrity-constraintk))
 r is the name of the relation
 each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of
relation r
 Di is the data type of attribute Ai

 Example:
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30),
assets integer)
 ALTER

 The SQL ALTER

TABLE command is used to
add, delete or modify columns
in an existing table.
 The basic syntax of ALTER
TABLE to add a new column in an
existing table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name ADD
column_name datatype;
 The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE
to DROP COLUMN in an existing
table is as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP
COLUMN column_name;
 The basic syntax of ALTER
TABLE to change the DATA
TYPE of a column in a table is
as follows:
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY COLUMN column_name
datatype;
 DROP

 The SQL DROP TABLE statement

is used to remove a table
definition and all data, indexes,
triggers, constraints, and
permission specifications for that
table.
 Syntax:

Basic syntax of DROP TABLE

statement is as follows:
DROP TABLE table_name;
Constraints
 SQL Constraints
• PRIMARY KEY: Primary key is a field that uniquely
identify each record in a database.
• Foreign Key : It is a field (or collection of fields) in one
table that uniquely identifies a row of another table.
• NOT NULL constraint :
– Ensures that column does not accept nulls
• UNIQUE constraint :
– Ensures that all values in column are unique
• DEFAULT constraint :
– Assigns value to attribute when a new row is added to table
• CHECK constraint:
– Validates data when attribute value is entered

15
primary key means attribute having unique and
not null value

Example: Declare branch_name as the primary key

for branch
.
create table branch
(branch_name char(15),
branch_city char(30) not
null,
assets integer,
primary key (branch_name))
 Not Null
• The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column
to NOT accept NULL values.
• The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to
always contain a value. This means that you
cannot insert a new record, or update a record
without adding a value to this field.
• The following SQL enforces the "P_Id"
column and the "LastName" column to not
accept NULL values:
• Example
• CREATE TABLE PersonsNotNull
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
)
 DEFAULT Constraint

• The DEFAULT constraint is used to insert a

default value into a column.
• The default value will be added to all new
records, if no other value is specified.
• The following SQL creates a DEFAULT constraint
on the "City" column when the "Persons" table is
created:
• CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255) DEFAULT 'Sandnes'
)
 FOREIGN KEY Constraint

• A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a

PRIMARY KEY in another table.
• Let's illustrate the foreign key with an
example. Look at the following two tables:
 The "Persons" table:

P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger
The "Orders" table:
• Note that the "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table
points to the "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table.
• The "P_Id" column in the "Persons" table is the
PRIMARY KEY in the "Persons" table.
• The "P_Id" column in the "Orders" table is a
FOREIGN KEY in the "Orders" table.
• The FOREIGN KEY constraint also prevents
invalid data from being inserted into the foreign key
column, because it has to be one of the values
contained in the table it points to.
• CREATE TABLE Orders
(
O_Id int PRIMARY KEY,
OrderNo int NOT NULL,
P_Id int REFERENCES Persons(P_Id)
)
 UNIQUE Constraint

• The UNIQUE Constraint prevents two

records from having identical values in a
particular column.
• CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS( ID INT
NOT NULL, NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT
NULL, AGE INT ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
PHONE INT UNIQUE );
 CHECK Constraint

• The CHECK constraint is used to limit the

value range that can be placed in a column.
• If you define a CHECK constraint on a single
column it allows only certain values for this
column.
• If you define a CHECK constraint on a table it
can limit the values in certain columns based
on values in other columns in the row.
• CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int PRIMARY KEY,
LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255),Age number(2) CHECK
(age>18)
);
 DML
COMMANDS
 INSERT
• The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used to add new rows of data
to a table in the database.
• Syntax:
There are two basic syntaxes of INSERT INTO statement as follows:
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2,
column3,...columnN)] VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);
Here, column1, column2,...columnN are the names of the columns in
the table into which you want to insert data.
• You may not need to specify the column(s) name in the SQL query if
you are adding values for all the columns of the table. But make sure
the order of the values is in the same order as the columns in the table.
The SQL INSERT INTO syntax would be as follows:
• INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES
(value1,value2,value3,...valueN);
• Assume we wish to insert a new row in the
"Customers" table. We can use the following
SQL statement:
• INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName,
ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode,
Country)
VALUES ('Cardinal','Tom B. Erichsen','Skagen
21','Stavanger','4006','Norway');
 UPDATE
• The SQL UPDATE Query is used to modify the existing
records in a table.
• You can use WHERE clause with UPDATE query to
update selected rows otherwise all the rows would be
affected.
• The basic syntax of UPDATE query with WHERE
clause is as follows:
• UPDATE table_name SET column1 = value1, column2
= value2...., columnN = valueN WHERE [condition];
• UPDATE CUSTOMERS SET ADDRESS = 'Pune'
WHERE ID = 6;
 DELETE
• The SQL DELETE Query is used to delete the
existing records from a table.
• You can use WHERE clause with DELETE query to
delete selected rows, otherwise all the records
would be deleted.
• The basic syntax of DELETE query with WHERE
clause is as follows:
• DELETE FROM table_name WHERE [condition];
• DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID = 6;
 The SQL SELECT Statement

• The SELECT statement is used to select data from a

database.
• SQL SELECT Syntax
SELECT column_name,column_name
FROM table_name;
• SELECT * FROM table_name;
• The following SQL statement selects the
"CustomerName" and "City" columns from the
"Customers" table:
• Example
• SELECT CustomerName,City FROM Customers;
 Simple SQL Query
Product PName Price Category Manufacturer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

SELECT
SELECT **
FROM
FROM Product
Product
WHERE
WHERE category=‘Gadgets’
category=‘Gadgets’
PName Price Category Manufacturer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
“selection”
 Product PName Price Category Manufacturer
Gizmo $19.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
Powergizmo $29.99 Gadgets GizmoWorks
SingleTouch $149.99 Photography Canon
MultiTouch $203.99 Household Hitachi

SELECT
SELECT PName,
PName,Price,
Price,Manufacturer
Manufacturer
FROM
FROM Product
Product
WHERE
WHERE Price
Price>>100
100
PName Price Manufacturer
“selection” and SingleTouch $149.99 Canon
“projection” MultiTouch $203.99 Hitachi
 Eliminating Duplicates
Category
SELECT
SELECT DISTINCT
DISTINCTcategory
category Gadgets
FROM
FROM Product
Product Photography
Household

Compare to:
Category
Gadgets
SELECT
SELECT category
category Gadgets
FROM
FROM Product
Product Photography
Household
 The SQL LIKE Operator

• The LIKE operator is used to search for a

specified pattern in a column.
• SQL LIKE Syntax
• SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name LIKE pattern;
• SELECT * FROM Customers
• WHERE City LIKE 's%';
 WHERE clause
• This clause is used to specify a condition while
fetching the data from single table or joining
with multiple tables.
• If the given condition is satisfied then only it
returns specific value from the table. You
would use WHERE clause to filter the records
and fetching only necessary records.
• The WHERE clause is not only used in
SELECT statement, but it is also used in
UPDATE, DELETE statement, etc.,
• SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY FROM
CUSTOMERS WHERE SALARY > 2000;
• This would produce the following result:
 VIEW
• In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an
SQL statement.
• A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The
fields in a view are fields from one or more real tables in the
database.
• You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a
view and present the data as if the data were coming from one
single table.
• Syntax:
• CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
• CREATE VIEW CurrentProductList AS
SELECT ProductID,ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued=No