Paper 2 Higher Revision

Session
Friday 7th June 2019
The basics – converting your units

x10 x1000
cm mm μm
/10 /1000

x1000 x1000000 x1000

g mg nanograms picograms
/1000 /1000000 /1000
 What’s on Paper 2?

Unit 6: Inheritance, Unit 7: Ecology

Unit 5: Homeostasis and
variation and evolution
Response
• Adaptations,
• Sexual and asexual interdependence and
• Homeostasis
reproduction competition
• The human nervous
• Meiosis (and mitosis) • Organisation within an
system
• DNA and the genome ecosystem
• Human endocrine
• Inheritance • Cycling of materials
system
• Variation • Biodiversity
• Hormones and blood
• Evolution and Extinction • Waste management,
sugar
• Genetic Engineering deforestation and land
• Hormones and
and Selective Breeding use
reproduction
• Resistant bacteria • Global warming
• Negative Feedback (HT)
• Classification • Maintaining biodiversity
Section 5 – Homeostasis
and Response
Homeostasis – regulation of internal
conditions
• Important for optimum enzyme activity

The human body controls:

• Blood glucose concentration
• Water levels
• Temperature

Receptors – detect a Coordination centre Effectors – muscles or

stimulus (change in the (brain/spinal cord/pancreas) glands, bring about a
environment) response
Nervous System
• Fast responses, transmitted via electrical impulses
• Brain and Spinal Cord – Central Nervous System
• Sensory, Motor and Relay neurones

Stimulus Receptor Coordinator Effector Response

 Insulated, long and thin to carry
impulses

Sends impulses to effector

Receive impulses from relay (muscles or glands)
and sensory neurones

This is a motor neurone – a sensory neurone looks different!

 A reflex is a rapid, automatic response that cannot
be controlled. They usually help keep you safe.

Reflex Arc
Sensory neurone –
sends impulses
Spinal cord – sends
from receptors to
message to coordination
CNS
centre (brain)

Effector – what gives

the response

Relay neuron – connects sensory neuron to

Motor neuron – sends motor neuron. Acts via a synapse.
impulses from CNS to
effector
Synapses – where two nerve cells meet
1. Impulse passes along and
reaches end of sensory neurone

2. Releases a chemical
(neurotransmitter) which
diffuses across the synapse

3. Binds to receptors on the relay

neurone

4. Impulse is transmitted on the

next neurone
Reaction Timing Practical
Independent variable – the drink Risk assessment:
(caffeine, no caffeine or water)
Drinking – making sure
people do not choke,
Dependent variable – Reaction check they do not have
time (by measuring ruler caught) any allergies. Make sure
the drink is not spilled.

Control variable – volume of Dropping a ruler –

drink, height the ruler was dangerous, make sure it
dropped from does not harm others
The Endocrine System – Hormones
• Chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream
• Released by glands
• Long-lasting

Nervous Endocrine
Electrical impulses Chemical messengers
Fast-acting Slow-acting
Effects are very quick Effects last for longer
 Known as the master
gland – releases

Involved in regulating the

hormones which act on
other glands
Endocrine System
menstrual cycle

Produces FSH and LH

Controls metabolism Produces thyroid

Fight or flight
Produces adrenaline
response
Produces insulin and glucagon

Main reproductive hormone in males. Produces oestrogen and

Stimulates sperm production. progesterone
Produces testosterone
 Receptors Hormone Binds to Glucose
in insulin receptors Gl
ls the produced in Glycogen fa uc
e ve ll os
e
l pancreas the liver le
ose ve
c
u l s
Gl se Respiration
ri rate
increases
Normal blood
glucose level
No change Normal blood
glucose level

Gl
fa uc s
ll os vel
e le
le se
ve c o
l s u
Gl se
Receptors Hormone Binds to Glycogen ri
in glucagon receptors
the produced in Glucose
pancreas the liver

Levels controlled by negative feedback

Diabetes – a non-communicable disease

Type 1 Type 2
• Pancreas does not produce • Body becomes resistant (not
enough insulin immune!) to insulin
• Treated with insulin • Result of genetic and lifestyle
injections risk factors
• Can potentially be treated • Treatments include exercise
with pancreas transplants and healthier diet
and stem cells
Hormones in the Menstrual Cycle

FSH – produced by the pituitary gland.

Stimulates egg to mature.

Oestrogen – produced in the ovaries.

Involved in building the uterus lining.

LH – produced by pituitary gland.

Stimulates ovulation.

Progesterone – produced by ovaries.

Maintains uterus lining.
Progesterone Menstruation Pituitary gland FSH causes egg to mature and
levels fall (5-7 days) stimulates production acts on ovaries to produce
of FSH oestrogen.

Progesterone LH stimulates ovulation Oestrogen inhibits further

Egg remains production of FSH and
inhibits LH and and production of
unfertilised stimulates production of LH
FSH production progesterone

Egg fertilised by sperm

from a male
Contraception
• Oral contraceptives – inhibit FSH so eggs don’t mature
• Implant/injection/patch – release progesterone to inhibit
ovulation
• Barrier (e.g. condom/diaphragm) – stops sperm reaching egg
• IUD – stops the embryo from implanting
• Spermicidal agents
• Ovulation calculators/apps
• Sterilisation (vasectomy/tubes tied)
IVF (in vitro fertilisation)
• Used to treat infertility/help a woman have a baby

Woman is given FSH and LH to stimulate egg maturation

Eggs are collected from the body and fertilised by the sperm

Fertilised eggs develop in to embryos

Embryos (not eggs!) implanted back in to the uterus

Adrenaline – fight or flight
• Produced by the adrenal gland
• Produced during times of stress
• Increases heart rate – more oxygen and glucose to cells for
respiration
Thyroxine
• Produced by thyroid gland
• Stimulates basal metabolic rate
• Important in growth and development
• Levels controlled by negative feedback
Inheritance, variation and
evolution
Reproduction

Asexual Sexual
• No gametes involved • Involves gametes (sperm and
• Involves meiosis only egg/pollen and egg)
• Leads to genetically identical • Involves mitosis and meiosis
offspring (clones) • Leads to genetically varied
offspring
Mitosis
1. DNA replicates to form two copies of each chromosome
2. Nuclear membrane breaks down. Chromosomes line up down
the middle of the cell.
3. Chromosomes are pulled apart to each end of the cell.
4. Cytoplasm and cell membrane divide to produce diploid cells
Meiosis
1. Chromosomes make identical copies of themselves
2. Similar chromosomes pair up
3. Sections of DNA get swapped
4. Cells divide twice to produce haploid cells

Cells produced in meiosis have half the number of

chromosomes.
The full number is then restored at fertilisation. Cells
differentiate as the embryo starts to develop
 DNA and the genome
Keyword Definition
DNA The chemical that genetic material is made of
Double-helix The shape of DNA in the nucleus
Chromosome Structures DNA is contained in
Gene A small section of a chromosome that codes for a protein
Allele Two different versions of the same gene
Genome The entire genetic information of an organism
Genotype The genes/alleles that code for a characteristic (e.g. Bb)
Phenotype The physical characteristic that appears (e.g. brown eyes)

Understanding the genome helps us:

• Search for genes linked to diseases
• Understand and treat inherited disorders
• Trace migration patterns from the past
 Genetic inheritance
Keyword Definition
Homozygous Two copies of the same allele (e.g. BB)
Heterozygous Two copies of different alleles (e.g. Bb)
Dominant Only need one copy of the allele for it to be expressed
Recessive Need both copies of the allele for it to be expressed

Multiple genes interact to determine a characteristic - the

probabilities of punnet squares are not always exact
Some characteristics are controlled by a single gene
• Fur colour in mice
• Red-green colour blindness in humans
 Inheritance
• Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes – the X and Y determine
gender
XX = female, XY = male
• Some disorders can be inherited
• Polydactyly (extra fingers/toes) – dominant allele
• Cystic fibrosis (cell membrane disorder) – recessive allele

Embryos can be screened for inherited disorders – ones without the

disorder are implanted in to the uterus
Variation
• Differences between individual members of a species or
population
• Genetic
• Environmental
• Both
Evolution
• Mutations cause variation but most of the time have no effect
• Rarely they determine phenotype (physical characteristic) –
this can lead to evolution

• Evolution is a change in inherited characteristics through the

process of natural selection

• All life evolved from simple life forms that first developed
over three billions years ago
Evolution of a species – VCBARP!
There is variation within a giraffe population –
Variation leads to some have long necks and some have short
Competition. necks.
The giraffes compete for food higher up the
Better trees.
Adapted will survive and The giraffes with longer necks are better
Reproduce and adapted. They can reach the food so survive
and reproduce.
Pass on their genes
Shorter neck giraffes die out.
The gene for long necks is passed on to their
offspring.
This happens over many generations and can
lead to formation of a new species
Survival of the Fittest (Bacteria)
• Bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics through mutations – MRSA

Solving the problem

• Stop overprescribing of antibiotics – immune system can fight off lots of
infections on its own
• Finish the course of antibiotics – ensures all bacteria are killed
• Stop prescribing antibiotics for viruses
• Disinfectant/hand sanitiser in surgeries/hospitals – kill resistant bacteria
• Isolate infected patients – reduce spread, reduce chance of bacteria
becoming resistant
Evidence for Evolution
• Fossils – show development of organisms
• Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
• Science now understands how inheritance works
Fossils
• Remains of organisms from millions of years ago
• Organisms that have not decayed – conditions not correct
• Parts of organism replaced by minerals as they decay
• Preserved traces of organisms (e.g. footprints)
• Can be used to see how organisms changed as Earth developed
• Early life-forms soft-bodied – few traces left behind which
makes it difficult to determine how life began
Extinction
• When there are no individual members of a species left
• Disease
• Competition
• Hunted by humans/predators
• Lack of food
• Loss of habitat
 Selective Breeding (Artificial Selection)
Humans breed plants and animals Characteristics chosen include:
for their desired characteristics • Disease resistance in
• Select parents with the desired food crops
characteristics • Animals which produce
• Breed them together more meat or milk
• Domestic dogs with a
• Select offspring with desired
characteristics gentle nature
• Breed them together • Large or unusual flowers
• Repeat over many generations

Can lead to inbreeding – more prone to genetic disease/defects

Genetic Engineering
• Gene from one organism is ‘cut out’ and placed in to another
• Modifies the entire genome
• Could potentially be used to help treat inherited disorders
• Plants can be genetically modified:
• Resistant to disease
• Bigger/better fruits
• Higher yields
• Bacteria can be genetically modified:
• Produce useful proteins e.g. insulin
 Genetic Engineering

Enzymes used to isolate and cut out the gene

Gene inserted in to a vector (plasmid or virus)

Vector inserts gene in to required cells (bacteria often used as

they have a high reproduction rate)

Genes transferred at early stage of development so all cells have the

desired characteristic
GM crops

Advantages Disadvantages
• Resistant to insect attack or • May affect wild plants if the genes
herbicides – less competition transfer  wild plants become
resistant
• Increased yield = more • Reduces biodiversity – kills other
money, more people fed plants
• Better nutritional content • Reduces biodiversity – only one
(e.g. Golden Rice) type of plant grown
• Survive in harsh conditions – • Effect on health
grow in more places • Expensive if they have to buy new
seeds every year
Classification
• Based on system by Linnaeus
• Is important in helping us understand how organisms are
related
• Uses similarities in DNA and appearance to place organisms in
to groups
• E.g. sequencing DNA in the nucleus and mitochondria
 Linnaeus System
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Panthera leo
Order
Genus name, written with Species name, written
Family capital letter with lower case letter

Genus Gives the binomial name of an organism

Species

Keep Ponds Clean Or Frogs Get Sick

Three domain system of classification
• Developed by Carl Woese – needed a new model of classification
• Understood biochemical structures better
• Improvements in microscopes

• Archae – simple bacteria which live in extreme environments

(extremophiles)

• Bacteria – prokaryotes

• Eukaryota – protists, fungi, plants and animals

Evolutionary Trees
• Show how organisms are believed to be related
• Use current classification data (living organisms)
• Use fossil data (extinct organisms)
Ecology
Communities
• Community – all the species of plants and animals in a specific
habitat
• Stable community – the populations stay relatively constant
• Interdependence – different species in a community rely on
each other (e.g. food, shelter, pollination etc.)
Animals compete for: Plants compete for:
• Food • Light
• Mates • Space
• Territory • Water and minerals
from the soil
 Biotic and Abiotic Factors

Biotic Factors Abiotic Factors

• Living factors • Non-living factors
• E.g. • E.g.
• New predator • Sunlight
• Disease/pathogens • Soil moisture/pH levels
• Lack of food • Oxygen levels
• Hunted by humans • Rainfall

Biodiversity – all the different species of plants and animals living in an environment
Adaptations
• A feature of an organism that helps it to survive
• Structural
• Polar bear has fur to keep it warm
• Shape of beak on a bird
• Behavioural
• Bird calls and migration patterns
• Hibernation during winter
• Functional/Physiological (body processes)
• Penguins slow their heart rate underwater  conserve oxygen
• Camels kidneys are structured to limit urine production
 Ecosystems The arrow means ‘provides energy for’ –
not is eaten by!

Grass Rabbit Fox

Producer (makes Primary Secondary
its own food consumer consumer
through
photosynthesis)

Extremophiles – organisms that live in extreme environments (e.g. bacteria living in

deep sea vents)

• High temperature
• Extreme pressure
• Extreme pH/salt concentrations
 If a community is stable the predator
and prey numbers cycle

Predator-prey relationship
Large number of predators
mean prey is hunted – numbers
fall
Predator – doing
Prey not
getting the hunting
eaten so Prey – is being
numbers
rise hunted

There is more food for the predators – they Predators compete for food – there is not
survive and reproduce enough so some die out
Sampling – Quadrat
• Quadrat – frame
• Use a light meter/pH meter if necessary

1. Place quadrat randomly on field

2. Count number of species
3. Repeat and work out an average
4. Scale it up to the size of the whole field
Sampling - Transects
• Used to investigate the impact of an abiotic factor

1. Place measuring tape across field/next to stream etc.

2. Place quadrat at regular intervals
3. Count species/height of plant etc
4. Repeat (in different directions)
5. Work out an average
6. Scale it up
 Microorganisms return carbon to the
atmosphere and mineral ions to the soil

Cycling of materials

All materials are recycled to provide building blocks for future organisms (e.g. amino
acids, fatty acids and glucose)
Biodiversity
• All the different species of plants and animals living in a
specific habitat or ecosystem
• Reduces how dependent species are on each other
• Human activities are reducing biodiversity
• Deforestation – loss of habitat kills species, they protect/act as food
for others
• Global warming – many areas become inhabitable, species cannot
adapt
• Waste management – habitat loss (landfills), release greenhouse gases
Maintaining Biodiversity
• Breeding programmes for endangered species
• Protection and regeneration of rare habitats
• Reintroducing field margins and hedgerows if only one type of
crop is being grown
• Reducing deforestation rates
• Reduce carbon dioxide emissions (government laws)
• Recycling/reusing instead of throwing away
Waste Management
• Rapid growth of human population and increase in living
standards
• More resources used and more waste produced  pollution
• Water from sewage, fertilisers and toxic chemicals
• Air from smoke and acidic gases
• Land from landfill and toxic chemicals
• Waste and chemicals need to be correctly handled to reduce
risk of more pollution
• Pollution kills plants and animals  reduces biodiversity
Land use
• Building, quarrying, farming and waste dumping  reduces
land for plants and animals
• Peat bogs destroyed to produce compost
• Produces CO2  contributes to climate change
• Difficult as compost needs to be cheap for food production but need
to conserve peat bogs for biodiversity
Deforestation
• Deforestation – releases carbon stores from trees, less CO2
removed from atmosphere
• Provides land for cattle and rice fields
• Grow crops for biofuels
• Leads to loss of habitat
• Increases soil erosion  barren land (little life)  flooding and
land slides
• Air pollution when trees are caused
 Global Warming

• Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon

dioxide
• Increased levels of methane
• Sea levels rise
• Dry climates – areas become
inhabitable
• Loss of habitat

Evidence for global warming and climate change comes from peer reviewed evidence