FPED Unit 1
FPED Unit 1
FPED Unit 1
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
Introduction:
1. Adaptive design. In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation
of existing designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and
can be attempted by designers of ordinary technical training. The designer only
makes minor alternation or modification in the existing designs of the product.
2. Development design. This type of design needs considerable scientific training and
design ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a
new material or different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer
starts from the existing design, but the final product may differ quite markedly from
the original product.
3. New design. This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative
thinking. Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently high order
can take up the work of a new design.
The designs, depending upon the methods used, may be classified as follows :
(a) Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of
principle of mechanics.
(b) Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on
the practice and past experience.
(c) Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production aspects to
manufacture any machine component in the industry.
(d) Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function under the
specified constraints. It may be achieved by minimizing the undesirable effects.
(e) System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
(f) Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like
piston, crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
(g) Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of computer
systems to assist in
The selection of food processing equipment is based on the suitability for the
intended application, the constructional and operational characteristics of the
equipment, and the purchase and maintenance costs.
• familiarity of thermodynamics
•unit operations
• safety, health, environment aspects
• changes involved processing and preservation techniques
• quality management tools
• and legal aspects is pre-requisite for design process.
Process design requires acquittance with unit processes and unit operations.
Mechanical design requires knowledge of fabrication, erection, installation,
commissioning, specifies function and operation of the equipment and selection of
material of construction and strength considerations
General Considerations in Machine Design
Selecting the proper materials for the construction to suit the process conditions
Preparing the specifications and or drawings for vendors for preparing their
quotations and subsequent fabrication
Construction Characteristics
ii. Cleaning Facility Food equipment is usually cleaned daily after processing, but if
the equipment is used in processing different products (e.g., a mixer) it must be
cleaned before switching to a new processing program. In this case, easy and quick
dismantling and assembling is essential, and joints and connections requiring
minimum labour are necessary. If CIP is used, the valves and automation of the
system should be reliable and resistant to the cleaning chemicals.
iii. Maintenance Special attention should be paid to the quality of equipment parts
that are worn out quickly, e.g., brushes, screens, nozzles, bearings, seals, conveyor
belts, knives, equipment surfaces contacting flowing solids, e.g., grains. Equipment
parts, requiring frequent maintenance, should have easy and quick access.
i. Reliability Since food is perishable, storage time is relatively short. Fresh products,
such as fish, milk, fruits, and vegetables, must be processed as soon as possible. This
presumes high capacity and reliability of processing equipment, and downtime and
breaking-down during processing should be prevented. Equipment of plant utilities,
participating indirectly in manufacturing of food, such as steam generation, process
water, electricity, and refrigeration units, must also be reliable. Reliability is also
important in food factories delivering on the basis of "just in time" agreements.
However, since even for the best machines, there are limits in reliability, it is advisable
to always have machines ready to replace the broken-down. Certainly, in the
production of large volumes of products, such as tomato paste or frozen food, it is
not possible to have spare evaporators or freezers for replacement. However, spare
units to replace more delicate machines and instrumentation, which are part of such
large units, should be available (e.g., pumps, fans, compressors, sensors for quality
control).
ii. Convenience Convenience in operating equipment and machines is especially
important in cases where the personnel are less skilled. As indicated by Kehoe
(1989), the future growth of "middle management" in the factory may shrink due to
restructuring, since much of the work formerly performed by supervisors and middle
managers is now superfluous and the operation of machines is entrusted to less
skilled individual workers.
iii. Safety Special care must be devoted to protect personnel working with machines
that have bare moving parts, such as cutting machines, fans, milling and forming
machines. In all cases, machine guarding to protect the operator and other
employees in the machine area must be foreseen. The guarding measures may
include barrier guards, two-hand tipping devices, and electronic safety devices (e.g.,
automated stopping of a machine if any human limb passes a certain limit of a
safeguarded area). Measures must also be undertaken to minimize hazards that may
take place due to fire, electric shock, or explosion of dust material. Some of these
measures are the installation of nonexplosive or waterproof electric motors in
processing machines and the regular maintenance of the equipment (e.g., conveyors
of dry products). Explosions may take place in mills, silos, and conveying of granular
and powder food. Food industries and facilities in which most fire hazards are found
are mills, edible oil manufacturing units, and storage of dry products. To eliminate
hazards, there are several regulations and standards, worked out by organizations,
such as the OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health Administration) of the U.S.
iv. Instrumentation Food machines and equipment operate more efficiently when
processing conditions are controlled continuously. This may require sophisticated
instrumentation. The recent trend is, in addition to the usual indicating instruments,
installed directly on the machines/equipment, to get all the process information on
screens through computers. This also helps in developing CAD and CIM programs in
food manufacturing. Equipment that can be fully automated through connection to
computers may also be "telecontrolled" (operated from a distance), which is
important in sophisticated continuous processing (e.g., edible oil manufacturing and
milling), and in manufacturing of a number of special foods with the minimal
possible contact of personnel with the products (e.g., baby foods).
viii. Accuracy Many food processing operations do not require high accuracy in
industrial practice. However, in most packaging operations (e.g., bottling), in
weighing, and in confectionery processing, high accuracy is required. High accuracy is
also required when robots are involved in food processing.
ix. Environmental Impact "Environmentally friendly" machines and processing
equipment are required mainly for legal reasons, but also for reducing the adverse
effects on the health of people working in the food processing plant Environmental
burden includes equipment noise, odor, and effluents (water and air). Therefore, in
selecting various machines and equipment for food plants, the requirements of
equipment operation under environmental constrains must be met.
"Off-the shelf" standard equipment, such as pumps, tanks, heat exchangers, and
centrifuges, can be supplied from the stocks of equipment manufactures. Specialized
equipment may have to be fabricated by experienced manufacturers at a higher cost.
Equipment forms, related to food processing equipment, include the following:
pumps, fans, vacuum pumps, electric motors, heat exchangers, boilers, evaporators,
packaged refrigeration systems, filter presses, centrifuges, screens, distillation
columns, and process vessels. The specification forms contain information on the
type and properties of the product, the flow rate (capacity) and operating conditions
(temperature, pressure) and other characteristic data.
3. Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the
energy transmitted by each member.
4. Material selection. Select the material best suited for each member of the
machine.
5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Find the size of each member of the
machine by considering the force acting on the member and the permissible stresses
for the material used. It should be kept in mind that each member should not deflect
or deform than the permissible limit.
6. Modification. Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience and
judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by
consideration of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
7. Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the assembly
of the machine with complete specification for the manufacturing processes
suggested.
Fabrication of equipment
The requirements for construction of food processing equipment are to a great extent
similar to those applied in building general processing equipment. However, due to
the biological character of the processed food materials, certain limitations,
influencing their quality and safety (e.g., temperature, moisture, pressure, contact
with air), must be taken into consideration. The designer of food equipment must
keep in mind the selection requirements of the final user in the food industry who
will play a role in purchasing the constructed equipment, and a feedback of
experience is indispensable. The following basic points must be taken into
consideration for the proper design and construction of food equipment: strength,
technological suitability, weak construction points, and fabrication and installation of
equipment.
Materials and properties
Introduction
The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance for a design
engineer. The machine elements should be made of such a material which has
properties suitable for the conditions of operation. In addition to this, a design
engineer must be familiar with the effects which the manufacturing processes and
heat treatment have on the properties of the materials.
Classification of Engineering Materials:
The engineering materials are mainly classified as :
(a) Metals and their alloys, such as iron, steel, copper, aluminium, etc.
(b) Non-metals, such as glass, rubber, plastic, etc.
The metals may be further classified as : (a) Ferrous metals, and (b) Non-ferrous
metals
The ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as
cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
The non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main
constituent, such as copper, aluminium, brass, tin, zinc, etc.
Metals are the most important materials used in the construction of food processing
equipment.
The nonferrous metals are either used in the construction of equipment and in
equipment parts coming directly in contact with food, or are included in alloys or in
chemicals that are used for influencing the properties of other materials (e.g., paints,
plastics).
The principal raw material for all ferrous metals is pig iron which is obtained by
smelting iron ore with coke and limestone, in the blast furnace.
Steel: Stainless steel is the main material used in direct contact with food. Carbon
steel and low-alloy steel are used only in special cases in direct contact with food,
e.g., in the edible oil industry (mills, presses, and oil tanks at temperatures below
150°C in preliminary processes of the canning industry (e.g., cleaning of raw
potatoes), and in sorting of fruits and vegetables in packing houses.
Carbon is the main component (0.03-1.7%) that influences the strength of steel.
Increasing the carbon content causes an increase of the alloy tensile strength (e.g.,
the steel strength is tripled when 0.9% carbon is added), a reduction of strain (down
14-fold when more than 1.6% carbon is added), an increase of hardness (up to 3.5-
fold), and a reduction of welding ability .
The addition of elements such as Cr, Ni, Mn, Mo, Ni, or Ti leads to alloyed metals,
which have enhanced properties. The composition of the various carbon and low-
alloy steels is given by the standards of the American Iron Steel Institute (AISI).
Both are sensitive to oxidation, and are often protected through coatings (paints,
plastics). Carbon steel is resistant to water-free mineral acids (e.g., H2S04) and
relatively resistant to lye solutions, but it is attacked by organic acids and dilute
mineral acids and it is very sensitive to moisture. Its corrosion rates are about 0.13-
0.5 mm/year. Low-alloy steel is a little more resistant than carbon steel against
humidity. Cast iron is used mainly for supporting purposes, casings and cast parts of
food equipment that do not come directly in contact with food. The tensile strength
of carbon steel and low-alloy steel is 345-485 and 220 MPa, respectively. The thermal
conductivity of both metals is 36-46 W/m K
Stainless Steels
High-grade stainless steel is the most important type of steel used in direct contact
with food in constructing food-processing equipment.
Stainless steels are characterized, in general, by chromium content higher than 12%
and by their passivity, i.e., the ability to form an impervious surface coating, which
inhibits corrosion. Austenitic stainless steel, containing nickel (Ni > 3.5%), is mainly
used, because this type is more corrosion-resistant and more ductile. In most food
equipment, two types of stainless steel are used: AISI 304 and AISI 316.
The corresponding specification numbers in the British Standards for stainless steel (BS
1501) are 801B and 845B, respectively .
In the German Standardization Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN), stainless steels
have the specification DIN 17440 (X5CrNi18-8),. The carbon content of AISI 304 and
AISI 316 is 0.08%. Low carbon content improves welding, which may also be achieved
by adding titanium (Ti) or niobium (Nb).
The Cr and Ni content for both types is 18 and 8%, respectively. Cr improves the
hardness and abrasion resistance of the alloy. Ni increases the toughness and
improves the properties at low temperatures.
AISI 316 also contains 2-3% Mo, which enhances the alloy properties at higher
temperatures, important in welding, and increases the resistance to pitting due to
chlorides.
Besides these two types, variations 304L and 316L are also used. Both of them have
further reduced carbon content (0.03%), which enables welding of thicker stainless
steel sheets.
Both types of stainless steel are resistant to oxidation and acids. Their resistance
against lye is similar to that of carbon steel.
AISI 316 is about 25% more corrosion resistant than AISI 304.The tensile strength of
both types of stainless steel is 565 MPa. Their thermal conductivity (A) is relatively
low (18.8 W/m K). However, in heating or cooling fluids, the low A of stainless steel
does not influence heat transfer very much, since the thickness of the metal sheets
in heat exchangers is small, and the effect of other factors (viscosity and fluid
velocity) is much more pronounced
Aluminum
Aluminum is the most widely used nonferrous metal for food processing equipment.
It has the advantages of high strength-to-weight ratio, nonmagnetic properties, good
thermal and electrical conductivity, and resistance to corrosive environments.
Commercially pure (>99.5% AI) wrought metal (DIN 1712, Sheet 3, American
Aluminum Association, AA 1060) is used in tanks for storage and transportation of
milk and beer, acetic acid, and alcohol. Its alloys are used in supporting
constructions. Since its strength remains stable at temperatures down to about -
250°C, and its thermal conductivity is high (208.8 Wlm K), it is often used for food
freezing equipment (e.g., plate food freezers).
It is used in some equipment that comes directly in contact with food, e.g., beer
brewing ingredients that have a pH below 6 in the pre fermentation and
fermentation steps of beer brewing.
Because of its relatively good corrosion resistance against nonoxidizing acids, copper
is used in equipment employed in starch hydrolysis with dilute hydrochloric acid. The
tensile strength of copper is about 360 Mpa.
Copper alloys, such as brasses and bronzes (>60% Cu), are stronger than pure copper.
Brasses are virtually not used for food equipment, but bronzes (especially aluminum
and silicon bronzes) are often used in valves, taps, and other cast parts of
equipment. Bronze is used in some food equipment after plating with non oxidized
metals (e.g., Ni, Cr).
Other Metals
Tin is used as a constituent of copper alloys, and in coating steel or copper so as to avoid their
direct contact with food. Nickel and chromium are constituent metals in steel and copper
alloys.
The addition of Ni increases toughness and corrosion resistance of steel alloys. Chromium
increases strength and hardness.
Monel 400 is a nickel-copper alloy (67% Ni) that has good strength and quite good corrosion
resistance properties against alkalis, organic acids, and salt (brine solutions). It is more
expensive than stainless steel, but it may be used in reducing conditions, in which stainless
steel would be unsuitable
Plastics-Rubber
Plastics are usually resistant to corrosion, but their mechanical strength is limited.
Furthermore, their strength depends strongly on the temperature of the material.
The upper temperature application limit of most temperature-resistant plastics lies
at 250°C. Therefore, in food processing equipment, plastics are mainly used for
coating and parts that are not under high and continuous stress (e.g., parts of
ventilators and pumps, pipes, fittings, small tanks, covers of vessels, filters, gaskets).
In all cases, plastics must fulfill the requirements concerning the interaction of
materials with food. This is especially important for plasticizers, which are added to
influence the properties of the plastics, and which are generally undesirable in the
food system.
The thermal conductivity of both materials is 0.334 W/mK.. PTFE has relatively low
mechanical strength (7-25 MPa), but it is used when high temperatures prevail, as
it withstands temperatures up to 250°C.
Examples of thermosetting materials are polyester and the epoxy resins. The
tensile strength for polyester is 40-100 MPa and for epoxy resins, it may reach 200
MPa.
The thermal conductivity of polyester is 0.13-0.26 W/m K. Epoxy resins are also
used as adhesive of plastic or even metal equipment parts. However, in this case
the application temperature should not exceed 100-180°C.
They are used in coating of other stable materials (e.g., in bins, vats) and in the
construction of pipes and processing equipment for very sensitive products.
Ceramics are also used in filtration (e.g., sand, porous silicate bodies), in ultrafiltration,
and for insulation (glass wool). They can be used in enameling of metals to protect
against corrosion (e.g., storage tanks), and for glass-fiber reinforced plastics. Polyester
resins, reinforced with glass fiber, have a relatively good strength up to 130°C, are
resistant to several chemicals, and can be easily formed. Therefore, they are often
used for fittings and valves in connection with plastic pipes and vats.
Wood
It was used in the past for the fabrication of various food processing equipment, but its
use has been discontinued, due to hygienic (sanitary) and mechanical strength
problems. At the present time, wood is used as an inexpensive material in some
traditional food processes, such as fermentation tanks and storage containers for wine,
pickles, and olives. The high acidity and the high salt (NaCI) content of brines in some
of these products can cause severe corrosion problems even for expensive metallic
construction materials, such as stainless steel.
Selection of Materials for Engineering Purposes
The selection of a proper material, for engineering purposes, is one of the most
difficult problem for the designer. The best material is one which serve the desired
objective at the minimum cost. The following factors should be considered while
selecting the material :
1. Availability of the materials
2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service
3. The cost of the materials
5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic.
The ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and
percentage reduction in area. The ductile material commonly used in engineering
practice (in order of diminishing ductility) are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel,
zinc, tin and lead.
10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock
and impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume
within elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.
11. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a
long period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep.
This property is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and
turbines.
12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses
below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.
The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are usually
fine and of microscopic size. This property is considered in designing shafts,
connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.
13. Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of
meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear,
scratching, deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to
cut another metal.
The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are dependent on the method
of making the test. The hardness of a metal may be determined by the Brinell
hardness test, Rockwell hardness test, Vickers hardness (also called Diamond
Pyramid) test, or Shore scleroscope.
Corrosion prevention
Metals are thermodynamically unstable and tend to react with their environment to
produce compounds such as oxides or carbonates (reaction involves movement of
electrons, electrochemical reaction). If corrosion products are insoluble and may
from a protective skin on the metal a high degree of corrosion resistance eg:
Aluminium, stainless steel, etc. If corrosion product is loose and non-adherent, the
corrosion resistance is poor eg: Steel, iron, etc
Corrosion is influenced by metallurgical composition and micro-structure. Extent of
corrosion between two dissimilar metals depends on their electrode potential
difference, the distance apart and of the metalsrelative areas. Metals can be
arranged in the order of their electrode potentials – galvanic or electrochemical
series. Non metals have good corrosion resistance under atmospheric conditions
Design Considerations
For satisfactory design, the following factors must be considered
• Material Selection
• Corrosion prevention
• Stresses due to static and dynamic loads
• Elasticity, Instability
• Combined stresses and Theories of failure
• Fatigue
• Brittle fracture
• Creep
• Temperature effects
• Radiation effects
• Effects of fabrication methods
• Economic considerations
Load: It is defined as any external force acting upon a machine part. The following
four types of the load are important from the subject point of view:
1. Dead or steady load. A load is said to be a dead or steady load, when it does not
change in magnitude or direction.
2. Live or variable load. A load is said to be a live or variable load, when it changes
continually.
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads. A load is said to be a suddenly applied or shock
load, when it is suddenly applied or removed.
4. Impact load. A load is said to be an impact load, when it is applied with some
initial velocity.
Note: A machine part resists a dead load more easily than a live load and a live load
more easily than a shock load.
Stress: When some external system of forces or loads act on a body, the internal
forces (equal and opposite) are set up at various sections of the body, which resist
the external forces. This internal force per unit area at any section of the body is
known as unit stress or simply a stress. It is denoted by a Greek letter sigma (σ).
Mathematically, Stress, σ = P/A
where P = Force or load acting on a body, and
A = Cross-sectional area of the body.
In S.I. units, the stress is usually expressed in Pascal (Pa) such that 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. In
actual practice, we use bigger units of stress i.e. megapascal (MPa) and gigapascal
(GPa), such that 1 MPa = 1 × 106 N/m2 = 1 N/mm2 and 1 GPa = 1 × 109 N/m2 = 1
kN/mm2
Strain
When a system of forces or loads act on a body, it undergoes some deformation. This
deformation per unit length is known as unit strain or simply a strain. It is denoted by
a Greek letter epsilon (ε).
Mathematically, Strain, ε = δl / l or δl = ε.l
where δl = Change in length of the body, and
l = Original length of the body.
Let P = Axial compressive force acting on the body, A = Cross-sectional area of the
body, l = Original length, and δl = Decrease in length.
∴ Compressive stress, σc = P/A and compressive strain, εc = δ l/ l
Note : In case of tension or compression, the area involved is at right angles to the
external force applied.
Poisson's Ratio
It has been found experimentally that when a body is stressed within elastic limit, the
lateral strain bears a constant ratio to the linear strain, Mathematically, Lateral strain/
Linear strain = Constant
This constant is known as Poisson's ratio and is denoted by 1/m or μ.
Volumetric Strain
When a body is subjected to a system of forces, it undergoes some changes in its
dimensions. In other words, the volume of the body is changed. The ratio of the
change
The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine
component depends upon a number of considerations, such as the material, mode
of manufacture, type of stress, general service conditions and shape of the parts.
Before selecting a proper factor of safety, a design engineer should consider the
following points :
1. The reliability of the properties of the material and change of these properties
during service
2. The reliability of test results and accuracy of application of these results to
actual machine parts
3. The reliability of applied load
4. The certainty as to exact mode of failure
5. The extent of simplifying assumptions
6. The extent of localized stresses
7. The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacture
8. The extent of loss of life if failure occurs
9. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs
Each of the above factors must be carefully considered and evaluated. The high
factor of safety results in unnecessary risk of failure.
Stress and strain Curve
1. Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory)
3. Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant
theory)
5. Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises
theory)
1)Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)
• According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when
the maximum principal or normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the
limiting strength of the material in a simple tension test
• Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield point stress and for brittle
materials the limiting strength is ultimate stress, therefore according to the above
theory, taking factor of safety (F.S.) into consideration, the maximum principal or
normal stress (σt1) in a bi-axial stress system is given by
• Where σyt = Yield point stress in tension as determined from simple tension test,
and σu = Ultimate stress
• Since the maximum principal or normal stress theory is based on failure in tension
or compression and ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore
it is not used for ductile materials.
• However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in
tension or compression, this theory is generally used
2) Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)
• Where σt1 and σt2 = Maximum and minimum principal stresses in a bi-axial stress
system, ε = Strain at yield point as determined from simple tension test,
• 1/m = Poisson’s ratio, E = Young’s modulus, and F.S. = Factor of safety.
• This theory is not used, in general, because it only gives reliable results in
particular cases.
4) Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s Theory)
• According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member
when the strain energy per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches the
limiting strain energy (i.e. strain energy at the yield point ) per unit volume as
determined from simple tension test.
• According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when
the distortion strain energy (also called shear strain energy) per unit volume in a bi-
axial stress system reaches the limiting distortion energy (i.e. distortion energy at
yield point) per unit volume as determined from a simple tension test.
• Mathematically, the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is expressed as
• This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy
theory.