13.

1 Solid materials can behave in an elastic or plastic manner depending on the nature of the deforming
Elastic and plastic forces. Elastic and plastic properties of materials are investigated using force-extension graphs.
deformation
p. 188-189

A material undergoing elastic deformation will return to its original dimensions when the deforming force is removed.
Plastic deformation will leave the material deformed.
 13.2 Solid materials play a vital role in our lives. Studying their properties has contributed in the progress,
Properties of solid among others, of engineering components and sports equipment.
materials
p. 189-191

Hardness: A measure of how hard it is to indent or scratch the surface of the material.

Stiffness: A measure of how hard it is to deform a material when subjected to a force.

Toughness: A measure of the ability of a material to absorb energy from impacts and shocks without breaking.

Brittleness: A measure of how easily a material will shatter when subjected to dynamic shocks or impacts.

Strength: A measure of how much force a material can withstand before it breaks.

Malleability: A measure of the ability of a material to be hammered into thin sheets.

Ductility: A measure of the ability of a material to be drawn into wires.

 13.2
Properties of solid
materials
p. 189-191

tough
brittle
malleable
stiff brittle

ductile

stronger
 When a force acts on a material, it can be deformed to a different size or shape.
13.3
Hooke’s law A force that tends to elongate a material is called tension.
p. 192-199
The extra length a material gains when a tension force is applied on it is called extension.

When a material is being squashed to a smaller size, the force and the decrease in size are both
called compression.

Compression is
expressed
mathematically as a
negative extension.
 The atoms in a solid are held together by bonds that behave like springs to some degree, stretching
13.3 when the material is loaded.
Hooke’s law
p. 192-199 Hooke’s law states that up to a given load, the extension of a spring is directly proportional to the
force applied to it.

∆ 𝐹 =𝑘 ∆ 𝑥 where is the spring constant, a measure of the stiffness of the object.

1. Work out the spring constant of a spring of original length 28 cm if it extends to a length of 35 cm when a mass of 50 g is
added to it.

2. Sketch a force-extension graph for a spring that obeys Hooke’s law and explain the meaning of the gradient of the graph.
 13.3
Hooke’s law
p. 192-199 𝐹 =𝐹 1+ 𝐹 2

∆ 𝑥=∆ 𝑥1 + ∆ 𝑥 2
 The diagram below shows six sets of springs. All the springs are identical, and the same mass is
13.3 hanging on the bottom of each set of springs. Explain how far each of arrangements B–F would stretch
Hooke’s law compared with the single spring in A.
p. 192-199
 1. Write down a generalised equation for the area between the graph and the extension axis at any
13.3
given point .
Hooke’s law 2. What might this area stand for?
p. 192-199

For any force-extension graph, the area under the graph is equal to the
elastic strain energy.
1
𝛥 𝐸𝑒𝑙 = 𝐹 𝛥 𝑥
2

Elastic strain energy is the ability of a deformed material to do work

as it regains its original dimensions.

Show that the elastic strain energy stored in a stretched material could
also be calculated from the equation .
 A Slinky is a long spring made of metal. One end of a Slinky is fixed to the ceiling. The force
13.3
acting on the Slinky was varied by hanging weights from the other end. The graph shows the
Hooke’s law
results.
p. 192-199

(a) (i) Explain whether the results follow Hooke's law.

(2)

(ii) Show that the stiffness of the Slinky is about 0.7 N m −1.
(3)

(iii) Calculate the elastic strain energy stored in the Slinky when the applied force is 0.70 N.
(3)
 13.3
Hooke’s law
p. 192-199
 13.3 Point B is the elastic limit; beyond this point, Point C is the yield point; beyond this point, the material is
Hooke’s law the material ceases to be elastic. Although it plastic. The material will not contract at all when the load
may shorten when the load is removed, it will is removed. The bonds between atoms are no longer being
p. 192-199
not return to its original length. The material stretched and layers of atoms slide over each other with
has undergone permanent deformation. no restorative forces.

Point A is the limit of proportionality;

removing the load up to this point, or
even a little beyond it, the material
will return to its original length.
Loading and unloading are reversible.
This is known as the elastic region
and it follows Hooke’s law.
 A student investigates the extension of an elastic band for different forces. The student
13.3
obtains this data as he first adds weights to the elastic band (loading) and as he then
Hooke’s law
removes weights from the band (unloading).
p. 192-199

(i) Plot the loading and the unloading data on the

same graph.
(3)
(ii) Draw a curve of best fit through the loading
data.
(1)
(iii) Draw a curve of best fit through the
unloading data.
(1)
(iv) Write a conclusion for the experiment.
(3)
 1. Use your graph to estimate (counting squares) the work done on the band as it stretches.
13.3 2. Use your graph to estimate (counting squares) the work done by the band as it relaxes.
Hooke’s law 3. Calculate the difference between the two values, shade it on your graph, and explain what it might
p. 192-199 stand for.

This is known as hysteresis and it is

the energy transferred to internal
energy during the load-unload cycle.
If a rubber band is repeatedly
stretched and relaxed in a short time,
it will become warm!
 13.4
Tensile or compressive stress is a measure of the force within a material sample, that takes into
Stress and strain: account the cross-sectional area across the sample.
the Young
modulus
𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ( 𝑁 ) 𝐹
p. 199-205 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ( 𝑃𝑎 )= 𝜎=
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ( 𝑚 )
2
𝐴

1. Each column of the Parthenon has a diameter of 1.90 m and it is said to support 10 tonnes of marble. Assuming the column
to be a perfect cylinder, calculate the compressive stress in the column.
2. Show that the base SI unit of stress is .

Extension: What might the difference between pressure and stress be?
 13.4
Tensile or compressive strain is a measure of the extension or compression of a material sample,
Stress and strain: that takes into account the original length of the sample.
the Young
modulus
𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚) 𝛥𝑥
p. 199-205 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛= 𝜀=
𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h (𝑚) 𝑥

1. A strap of sewing elastic of length 23.4 cm is stretched to a length of 27.9 cm. Work out the tensile strain in the wire. Express
your answer as a percentage.
 13.4 If a material is deformed elastically, stress will be proportional to strain.
Stress and strain:
the Young The constant of proportionality, the Young modulus, is a measure of the stiffness of the material;
how much it deforms under a certain stress.
modulus
p. 199-205
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠( 𝑃𝑎) 𝜎
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 ( 𝑃𝑎 )= 𝐸=
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀

1. A rubber resistance cord has diameter 2.4 cm and an original length of 0.82 m. When a force of 60 N is applied on the cord, it
extends to a length of 1.82 m. Calculate the Young modulus of the cord.

2. Derive the equation for the Young modulus.

F
𝜎 𝐴 𝐹𝑥
𝐸= = =
𝜀 ∆𝑥 𝐴∆𝑥
𝑥
 13.4 (a) What is the compressive stress in each femur (thigh bone) of a 7 tonne elephant if the bone is a
Stress and strain: vertical cylinder with a diameter 25 cm and the elephant is standing normally?
the Young (b) If the Young modulus of elephant bone is 19 GPa, and the femurs are originally 95 cm long, how
modulus much would they reduce in length if the elephant stood up on its back legs? What assumption
p. 199-205 are you making?

7,000 × 9.81
(𝑎) 𝜎 = 2
=349,733 𝑃𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑒𝑚𝑢𝑟
4 × 𝜋 × 0.125

(assuming the bones are uniform and completely vertical)

 13.4
Stress and strain: Orthodontists use braces to straighten a patient's teeth. The force required to move the teeth
and the distance the teeth need to move both depend on the individual patient. One type of
the Young
brace consists of a wire under tension placed across the teeth, held in place by a bracket on
modulus
each tooth.
p. 199-205

A brace is fitted to a patient and tightened. The tension in the wire is 18 N. The wire is already under tension when
it is inserted into the brackets. Calculate the extension of a nickel-titanium wire when under a tension of 18 N.
Young modulus of nickel-titanium = 7.5 × 1010 Pa
original length of wire = 8.4 × 10–2 m
cross-sectional area of wire = 7.1 × 10–8 m2
(3)
 13.4
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205
 13.4
Stress and strain: The diagram shows a crane lifting a concrete beam.
the Young mass of beam = 1300 kg diameter of steel cable = 1.1 cm
modulus
(a) Show that the stress in the cable at point X is about 0.1 GPa.
p. 199-205
(4)

(b) The original length of the cable with no load is 15 m.

Calculate its extension when lifting the beam.
Young modulus for steel = 195 GPa
(3)
 13.4
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205
 13.4 The photograph shows a praying mantis hanging from a thin twig. Four of the praying mantis's
Stress and strain: six legs are in contact with the twig. The tension in the legs balances the weight to keep the
the Young praying mantis stationary.
modulus
p. 199-205

(a) The diagrams show a simplified model of the situation. For each leg in contact with the twig, the upper section is horizontal
and the lower section is at an angle of 30° to the vertical.
(i) Calculate the tension in the lower section of each leg in contact with the twig assuming that these tensions are all equal.
mass of praying mantis = 5.4 × 10−4 kg
(4)
(ii) A student suggests that the tension in each leg in contact with the twig is 25% of the weight of the praying mantis. State why
this is not correct.
(1)

(b) The praying mantis moves around the twig so that it is now standing upright and on top of the twig.
State the difference between the stress in the legs when the praying mantis is beneath the twig and when it is on top of the twig.
(1)
 13.4
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205
 13.4
Stress and strain:
the Young Point C is the yield point/stress; for stresses greater
than this, the material undergoes a sudden increase in
modulus extension as its atomic substructure is significantly re-
Point D is the ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
p. 199-205 or simply strength; it is the maximum stress
organised and its atoms reduce the internal stresses,
the material can endure.
making the material ductile and the deformation
plastic.

Point B is the elastic limit; if the stress is

removed below this value, the material
returns to its original state.

Point E is the fracture/breaking point/stress;

Point A is the limit of proportionality;
it is the value of stress when the sample
Slightly beyond this point, the metal
breaks.
may still behave elastically, but strain
will not increase in proportion to
stress. The gradient of this section of
the graph is equal to the Young
modulus. The material obeys Hooke’s
law.
 13.4 Show that the area under a stress-strain graph has units .
Stress and strain:
the Young The area under a stress-strain graph is equal to the energy density; the work done in stretching a
modulus specimen (the strain energy stored) per unit volume of the sample.
p. 199-205
1 1 𝐹 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑊
𝜎 × 𝜀= × =
2 2 𝐴 𝑥 𝑉

Extension: Explain why the line can go down in a section

of a stress-strain graph.
 13.4
Comparing material properties from stress-strain graphs:
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205

The material with the highest

UTS is the strongest (here A).

The material with the largest

The material with the
area under the graph is the
steepest gradient in the linear
toughest as it can absorb the
section of their graph is the
most energy from impacts
stiffest as it has the greatest
without breaking (here A).
Young Modulus (here A).

Materials with little or no

plastic deformation are the
most brittle (here B and D).
 13.4
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205

When a wire is under tension, two opposing mechanisms take place:

1. The wire loses cross-sectional area since it attempts to retain its volume while being stretched.
2. Once the bar begins to suffer plastic deformations, it undergoes stress hardening and its Young modulus increases.

So long as the increase in Young modulus is greater than the loss of area, the stress measured will increase. At a certain point,
however, the material starts to lose area faster than it hardens due to changes in the arrangement of the atomic structure of the
material.
 13.4
Core practical 5: Determine the Young modulus of a material
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205

Determine the Young modulus of a material

 13.4
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205 Young modulus of copper:
110-130 GPa
 13.4
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205
 13.4
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205
 13.4
A sample of steel in the form of a wire is subjected to an increasing load.
Stress and strain:
the Young Which of the following is the best description of the elastic limit of the steel?
modulus
(1)
p. 199-205
 13.4 Stress-strain graphs are drawn for four different materials, A, B, C and D.
Stress and strain: Which of the materials has the greatest strength?
the Young (1)
modulus
p. 199-205
 13.4
Stress and strain: Shrilk is a new material made from discarded shrimp shells. It is biodegradable and is easily
moulded into different shapes. Shrilk is an alternative to polythene and could be used to
the Young
make waste bags in the future.
modulus
p. 199-205 The graph shows a stress-strain curve for a 25.0 cm length of shrilk and for a similar length
of polythene, up to breaking point.

(a) (i) Calculate the force applied to the shrilk at a

strain of 0.02
cross-sectional area = 1.2 × 10–6 m2
(3)
(ii) Determine the extension of the shrilk at a strain of
0.04
(2)

(b) Deduce whether shrilk or polythene is better for

making waste bags.
(3)
 13.4
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205
 13.4
Stress and strain:
the Young
modulus
p. 199-205
The photograph shows an example of a Foucault pendulum.
This is a pendulum that consists of a massive sphere, suspended by a long wire from a high ceiling. Over time the
vertical plane through which the pendulum swings appears to rotate because of the rotation of the Earth.
mass of sphere = 28.0 kg
During refurbishment, the pendulum is taken down and the wire is replaced.
Steel wires of the following diameters are available:
0.71 mm 0.91 mm 1.22 mm 1.63 mm 2.03 mm

(i) Explain which of these wires is the thinnest that could be used to support
the sphere safely.
breaking stress of steel = 3.10 × 108 N m–2
(3)

(ii) The wire identified in part (i) is used for the pendulum, the unstretched
length of the new wire is 11.2 m.
Calculate the extension of the new wire when the sphere is attached.
Young Modulus for steel = 200 GPa
(3)
The diagram shows a rock climber of mass 55 kg. She is hanging on a rope with one foot in contact with a rock
face. She uses this foot to push herself horizontally away from the rock face. The rope is inclined at 20° to the
vertical.

(a) Complete a free-body force diagram to represent the forces acting on the climber.
(3)
(b) (i) Show that the tension in the rope is about 600 N.
(3)
(ii) The rope extends by 2.5 cm when used as shown.
Calculate the energy stored within the rope.
(2)
(iii) State one assumption made in this calculation.
(1)
Read the following article and then answer the questions that follow.
"The fastest, tallest and longest dive coaster, on which amusement park thrill seekers can experience free fall, is set to open next summer at Cedar
Point in Sandusky, Ohio. Valravn is designed to take riders up to a 66 m peak from which they plummet vertically with an acceleration g and feel
weightless.
The advent of steel-frame roller coasters in 1959 made taller structures possible.
Whereas height remains one of the best ways to attain intense speeds, a coaster car can also be shot from its starting point via electromagnetic
propulsion or a catapult. Cars on these launched coasters have the potential to go from zero to 130 km h –1 in two seconds.
Although coasters can definitely go faster, they're limited by the acceleration those higher speeds would require. Roller coasters reach their peak
speeds in a matter of seconds. The achieved acceleration is what causes g-forces, which allows riders to feel an increased or decreased sense of
their mass. These g-forces can be dangerous but they are also well understood by physicists, so roller coasters are built according to strict
standards that keep them well within safe levels.
Coasters are only permitted to accelerate up to 6g."
(Source: Shriek Science: Simple Physics Powers Extreme Roller Coasters Hackett Jennifer, Oct 14, 2015)

The graph shows typical stress-strain curves for wood and steel.

Discuss how the use of steel, rather than wood, has made the construction of
faster and taller roller coasters possible.
(5)
The following three properties can be used to describe copper.

Ductile Malleable Tough

Both nylon and copper can be used to make fishing lines. Copper fishing lines sink faster than those made of nylon. This
makes copper fishing lines more suitable for deep water fishing.
(i) By considering the forces acting on the submerged line, explain why nylon is less suitable than copper for deep water
fishing. Include a suitable calculation in your answer.
Both lines have the same cross-sectional area.
cross-sectional area of lines = 1.30 × 10−7 m2
density of saltwater = 1030 kg m−3
weight of 20.0 m of copper line = 0.220 N
weight of 20.0 m of nylon line = 0.0280 N
(4)
(ii) A fish becomes caught on the hook and the copper line extends. Calculate the extension produced.
cross-sectional area of copper line = 1.30 × 10−7 m3
load on line = 65.0 N
original length of line = 20.0 m
Young modulus of copper = 129 GPa
(3)
Pile drivers have been used for centuries to push piles into the ground for use as foundations of buildings and other structures. A large mass (the
driver) is raised and then dropped onto an object (the pile) which is pushed into the ground. The picture on the left shows the pile driver that
was used to build a London bridge in the 17th century.
(a) (i) The driver on the pile driver above had a mass of 810 kg and could be dropped a maximum distance of 6.0 m onto the pile. Show that the
energy transferred from the driver is about 50 kJ. (2)
(ii) In one instance, 40% of this energy is used usefully to drive in the pile. The pile moves 0.20 m into the ground. Determine the average
resistive force acting on the pile as it moves through the ground. (3)
(b) In order to protect the driver on modern pile drivers, a cushion made of wood is placed on the pile. The cushion is a cylindrical piece of wood
of Young modulus = 120 Mpa. The cushion is compressed when hit by the driver.
(i) The maximum compressive force applied to the wood during impact is 7.0 × 10 5 N. Show that the compression of the cushion is about 0.01 m.
(3)
(ii) Calculate the energy stored in the cushion under compression. (2)
*(iii) The graph shows how the compression of the wooden cushion varies with force, as the force is applied and removed during an impact.
Use the graph to explain the following:
1. the wooden cushion has to be replaced after a few hundred impacts (2)
2. with each impact the temperature of the wooden cushion rises slightly. (1)
A mass m is held in equilibrium by strings attached to two clamp stands. The force meter records the force F in the upper string.
The force in the horizontal string is P. The angle made by the upper string to the horizontal is θ, as shown.
(a) The force meter allows force to be measured by means of Hooke’s law. The extension of the spring inside the force meter
allows the stretching force to be read from a scale. When the force applied to stretch the spring is 15 N the extension of the
spring is 8.0 cm. Show that the stiffness of the spring is about 2 N cm −1.
(2)
(b) When m is equal to 0.55 kg, the value of P is 8.5 N. Calculate the value of θ, and the extension of the spring in the force
meter.
(6)
A steadily increasing tensile force was applied to a sample of a
titanium alloy. The sample had an original length of 40.0 cm and
diameter of 5.05 mm.

(a) State a suitable measuring instrument to measure the diameter of

the sample.
(1)

(b) The graph shows how stress varied with strain for the sample.
(i) Determine the Young modulus of the sample.
(3)
(ii) The sample broke at point B. Determine the force required to
break the sample.
(4)
(iii) The graph below shows a linear section of the stress-strain graph
for the sample. Show that the area under this graph represents the
work done per unit volume in
stretching the sample.
(3)
(iv) The area under any stress-strain graph represents the work done
per unit volume.
Estimate the amount of work required to break the titanium alloy
sample.
(4)
When concrete is first made it has a high moisture content. As the concrete dries its properties change. A manufacturer of concrete carried out
compression testing of cylindrical samples of concrete using the equipment shown. The diagram shows stress-strain graphs, up to the fracture
point, for concrete samples 2 days and 28 days after being made.
(a) As the concrete dries its Young modulus increases. Show that the value for the Young modulus of the concrete after it has dried is at least
1.3 times greater.
(4)
(b) The energy absorbed before fracture by the 28-day old sample is less than the energy absorbed before fracture by the 2-day old sample. The
area under a stress-strain graph gives the energy absorbed per unit volume of the sample. The energy absorbed before fracture by the 2-day old
sample is 0.35 MJ m–3. Determine the percentage reduction in the energy absorbed before fracture between the 2-day old and the 28-day old
samples. You may assume that the volumes of the cylindrical samples are the same.
(3)
(c) Manufacturers recommend leaving concrete blocks to dry for at least 28 days before use.
Discuss why.
(3)