Computer Graphics

Chapter 2
Overview of Graphics Systems
 Introduction
• All of computer graphics is based upon the properties of the screen
or display device. The fundamental thing that you need to know
about displays is that they are divided into lots of small squares
called pixels
Image file formats
• Image file formats are standardized means of organizing and storing
digital images.
• Image files are composed of digital data in one of these formats that
can be rasterized for use on a computer display or printer.
• An image file format may store data in uncompressed, compressed,
or vector formats. Once rasterized, an image becomes a grid of
pixels, each of which has a number of bits to designate its color
equal to the color depth of the device displaying it.
Image file sizes
• In raster images, Image file size is positively correlated to the
number of pixels in an image and the color depth, or bits per pixel, of
the image
 Introduction
Image file compression
•There are two types of image file compression algorithms:
1. Lossless compression algorithms - reduce file size while
preserving a perfect copy of the original uncompressed image.
Lossless compression generally, but not exclusively, results in
larger files than lossy compression. Lossless compression should
be used to avoid accumulating stages of re-compression when
editing images.
2. Lossy compression algorithms - preserve a representation of
the original uncompressed image that may appear to be a
perfect copy, but it is not a perfect copy. Oftentimes lossy
compression is able to achieve smaller file sizes than lossless
compression. Most lossy compression algorithms allow for
variable compression that trades image quality for file size.
 Major graphic file formats
• Divided into two:
1. Raster formats - the data describes the characteristics of
each individual pixel
2. Vector formats - contain a geometric description which
can be rendered smoothly at any desired display size.
• At some point, all vector graphics must be rasterized in
order to be displayed on digital monitors. However, vector
images can be displayed with analog CRT technology such
as that used in some electronic test equipment, medical
monitors, radar displays, laser shows and early video
games.
• Plotters are printers that use vector data rather than pixel
data to draw graphics.
 Raster formats Examples
• GIF- stands for graphics interchange format, a bit-
mapped graphics file format used by the World Wide
Web, CompuServe and many bulletin board system. GIF
supports color and various resolutions. It also includes
data compression, but because it is limited to 256 colors,
it is more effective for scanned images such as
illustrations rather than color photos.
• JPEG - Short for Joint Photographic Experts Group, and
pronounced jay-peg. JPEG is a lossy compression
technique for color images. Although it can reduce files
sizes to about 5% of their normal size, some detail is lost
in the compression.
 Raster formats Examples
• TIFF - Acronym for tagged image file format, one of the most
widely supported file formats for storing bit-mapped images
on personal computers (both PCs and Macintosh computers).
Other popular formats are BMP and PCX. TIFF graphics can be
any resolution, and they can be black and white, gray-scaled,
or color. Files in TIFF format often end with a .tif extension.
• MPEG - Short for Moving Picture Experts Group, and
pronounced m-peg, is a working group of the ISO. The term
also refers to the family of digital video compression
standards and file formats developed by the group. MPEG
generally produces better-quality video than competing
formats, such as Video for Windows, Indeo and QuickTime.
MPEG files previously on PCs needed hardware decoders
(codecs) for MPEG processing
• MPEG uses a type of lossy compression, since some data is
removed
 Raster formats Examples
• PNG - Short for Portable Network Graphics, and
pronounced ping, a new bit- mapped graphics format
similar to GIF. In fact, PNG was approved as a standard
by the World Wide Web consortium to replace GIF
because GIF uses a patented data compression
algorithm called LZW. In contrast, PNG is completely
patent - and license-free. The most recent versions of
Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer now
support PNG.
• BMP - The standard bit-mapped graphics format used in
the Windows environment. By convention, graphics files
in the BMP format end with a.BMP extension. BMP files
store graphics in a format called device-independent
bitmap (DIB).
 Vector formats
• CGM - CGM (Computer Graphics Metafile) is a file format for 2D
vector graphics, raster graphics, and text, and is defined by ISO/IEC
8632. All graphical elements can be specified in a textual source file
that can be compiled into a binary file or one of two text
representations.
• Gerber Format (RS-274X) - RS-274X Extended Gerber Format was
developed by Gerber Systems Corp., now Ucamco. This is a 2D bi-
level image description format. It is the de-facto standard format
used by printed circuit board or PCB software. It is also widely used
in other industries requiring high-precision 2D bi - level images.
• SVG - SVG (Scalable Vector Graphics) is an open standard created
and developed by the World Wide Web Consortium to address the
need (and attempts of several corporations) for a versatile,
scriptable and all-purpose vector format for the web and otherwise.
Because of its scripting potential, SVG is a key component in web
applications: interactive web pages that look and act like
applications.
 Raster-Scan Systems
• Interactive raster graphics systems typically employ
several processing units. In addition to the central
processing unit, or CPU, a special-purpose processor,
called the video controller or display controller, is
used to control the operation of the display device
 Raster-Scan Systems

• In addition to the video controller, more sophisticated raster

systems employ other processors as coprocessors and
accelerators to implement various graphics operations.
 Screen (Monitor)
• A monitor or display or visual display unit, is an
electronic visual display for computers. The monitor
comprises the display device, circuitry, and an
enclosure. The display device in modern monitors is
typically a Thin Film Transistor Liquid Crystal Display
(TFT-LCD) thin panel, while older monitors use a
cathode ray tube about as deep as the screen size.
The first computer monitors used Cathode ray tubes
(CRTs), which was the dominant technology until
they were replaced by LCD monitors in the 21st
Century.
 Screen (Monitor)
The performance of a monitor is measured by the following
parameters:
Luminance is measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m2 also called


a Nit).
Aspect ratios is the ratio of the horizontal length to the vertical length.


Monitors usually have the aspect ratio 4:3, 5:4, 16:10 or 16:9.
Viewable image size is usually measured diagonally, but the actual
widths and heights are more informative since they are not affected by
the aspect ratio in the same way.
Display resolution is the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that
can be displayed. Maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch.
Dot pitch is the distance between subpixels of the same color in


millimeters. In general, the smaller the dot pitch, the sharper the picture
will appear.
 Screen (Monitor)
 Refresh rate is the number of times in a second that a display is
illuminated. Maximum refresh rate is limited by response time.
 Response time is the time a pixel in a monitor takes to go from
active (white) to inactive (black) and back to active (white) again,
measured in milliseconds. Lower numbers mean faster transitions
and therefore fewer visible image artifacts.
 Contrast ratio is the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color
(white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is
capable of producing.
 Power consumption is measured in watts.
 Viewing angle is the maximum angle at which images on the
monitor can be viewed, without excessive degradation to the
image. It is measured in degrees horizontally and vertically.
 Screen (Monitor)
• The main measurements for display devices
are:
1. Width and height
2. Total area
3. The diagonal, usually measured in inches. The
diagonal measurement of a display as the actual
viewable area is also dependent on the aspect ratio
of the display. For a display device of the same area,
the diagonal achieves a larger value in a
widescreens than compared to more rectangular
screen. e main measurements for display devices
 Screen (Monitor)
• Aspect ratio
• The aspect ratio of an image is the ratio of the width of the image
to its height, expressed as two numbers separated by a colon.
That is, for an x:y aspect ratio, no matter how big or small the
image is, if the width is divided into x units of equal length and the
height is measured using this same length unit, the height will be
measured to be y units.
• Display resolution
• The display resolution of a digital television or display device is the
number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed.
It can be an ambiguous term especially as the displayed resolution
is controlled by all different factors in cathode ray tube (CRT), flat
panel or projection displays using fixed picture-element (pixel)
arrays.
 Other features
• Power saving - Most modern monitors will
switch to a power-saving mode if no video-
input signal is received.
• Integrated accessories - Many monitors have
other accessories (or connections for them)
integrated. These monitors have advanced
microprocessors which contain codec
information, Windows Interface drivers and
other small software which help in proper
functioning of these functions.
 Other features
• Glossy screen - Some displays, especially
newer LCD monitors, replace the traditional anti-
glare matte finish with a glossy one. This
increases color saturation and sharpness but
reflections from lights and windows are very
visible.
• Directional screen - Narrow viewing angle
screens are used in some security conscious
applications.
• Autostereoscopic (3D) screen - A directional
screen which generates 3D images without
headgear.
 Other features
• Touch screen - These monitors use touching of the
screen as an input method. Items can be selected or
moved with a finger, and finger gestures may be used
to convey commands. The screen will need frequent
cleaning due to image degradation from fingerprints.
• Tablet screens - A combination of a monitor with a
graphics tablet. Such devices are typically
unresponsive to touch without the use of one or more
special tools' pressure. Newer models however are
now able to detect touch from any pressure and often
have the ability to detect tilt and rotation as well.
Touch and tablet screens are used on LCD displays
as a substitute for the light pen, which can only work
on CRTs.
 Types of Monitors - Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT)
• The cathode ray tube (CRT) - is a vacuum tube
containing an electron gun (a source of electrons) and
a fluorescent screen, with internal or external means
to accelerate and deflect the electron beam, used to
create images in the form of light emitted from the
fluorescent screen.
• The image may represent electrical waveforms
(oscilloscope), pictures (television, computer
monitor), radar targets and others.
• A cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube which consists of
one or more electron guns, possibly internal
electrostatic deflection plates, and a phosphor target.
 Advantages of CRT
• High dynamic range (up to around 15,000:1),
excellent color, wide gamut and low black level.
The color range of CRTs is unmatched by any
display type except Organic Light-Emitting Diode -
OLED.
• Can display in almost any resolution and refresh
rate
• No input lag
• Sub-millisecond response times
• Near zero color, saturation, contrast or brightness
distortion. Excellent viewing angle.
• Allows the use of light guns/pens
 Disadvantages of CRT
• Large size and weight, especially for bigger screens (a
20-inch (51 cm) unit weighs about 50 lb (23 kg))
• High power consumption
• Generates a considerable amount of heat when running
• Geometric distortion caused by variable beam travel
distances
• Can suffer screen burn-in
• Produces noticeable flicker at low refresh rates
• Small color displays, less than 7 inches diagonal
measurement, are relatively costly. *The maximum
practical size for CRTs is around 24 inches for computer
monitors; most direct view CRT televisions are 36 inches
or smaller, with regular-production models limited to
about 40 inches.
 Liquid Crystal Display
• A Liquid Crystal Display - (LCD) is a flat panel display,
electronic visual display, video display that uses the light
modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not
emit light directly.
• They are used in a wide range of applications, including
computer monitors, television, instrument panels, aircraft
cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in
consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices,
clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones.
• LCDs have displaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in
most applications. They are usually more compact,
lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and
easier on the eyes. They are available in a wider range of
screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they
do not use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in.
 Advantages of LCD
• Very compact and light.
• Low power consumption.
• No geometric distortion.
• Little or no flicker depending on backlight
technology.
• Not affected by screen burn-in.
• No high voltage or other hazards present
during repair/service.
• Can be made in almost any size or shape.
• No theoretical resolution limit.
 Disadvantages of LCD
• Limited viewing angle, causing color, saturation, contrast and brightness to
vary, even within the intended viewing angle, by variations in posture.
• Bleeding and uneven backlighting in some monitors, causing brightness
distortion, especially toward the edges.
• Only one native resolution. Displaying resolutions either requires a video
scaler, lowering perceptual quality, or display at 1:1 pixel mapping, in which
images will be physically too large or won't fill the whole screen.
• Fixed bit depth, many cheaper LCDs are only able to display 262,000 colors.
• Input lag - Display lag is a phenomenon associated with some types of LCD
displays, and nearly all types of HDTVs, that refers to latency, or lag
measured by the difference between the time a signal is input into a display
and the time it is shown by the display
• Dead or stuck pixels may occur either during manufacturing or through use.
• In a constant on situation, thermalization may occur, which is when only part
of the screen has overheated and therefore looks discolored compared to the
rest of the screen.
• Not all LCDs are designed to allow easy replacement of the backlight.
• Cannot be used with light guns/pens.
 Plasma Display Panel (PDP)

A Plasma Display Panel (PDP) - is a type

of flat panel display common to large TV
displays 30 inches (76 cm) or larger. They
are called "plasma" displays because the
technology utilizes small cells containing
electrically charged ionized gases, or what
are in essence chambers more commonly
known as fluorescent lamps.
 Plasma display advantages
• Picture quality
– Capable of producing deeper blacks allowing for
superior contrast ratio
– Wider viewing angles than those of LCD; images do
not suffer from degradation at high angles like LCDs
– Less visible motion blur, thanks in large part to very
high refresh rates and a faster response time,
contributing to superior performance when displaying
content with significant amounts of rapid motion
• Physical
– Slim profile
– Can be wall mounted
– Less bulky than rear-projection televisions
 Plasma display Disadvantages
• Picture quality
– Earlier generation displays were more susceptible to screen burn-in
and image retention, although most recent models have a pixel
orbiter that moves the entire picture faster than is noticeable to the
human eye, which reduces the effect of burn-in but does not
prevent it.
– Earlier generation displays had phosphors that lost luminosity over
time, resulting in gradual decline of absolute image brightness
(newer models are less susceptible to this, having lifespans
exceeding 100,000 hours, far longer than older CRT technology)
– Earlier generation models were susceptible to "large area flicker"
– Heavier screen-door effect when compared to LCD or OLED based
TVs
• Physical
– Generally do not come in smaller sizes than 37 inches
– Heavier than LCD due to the requirement of a glass screen to hold
the gases
 Plasma display
• Other
– Use more electricity, on average, than an LCD TV
– Do not work as well at high altitudes due to pressure
differential between the gases inside the screen and the air
pressure at altitude. It may cause a buzzing noise.
Manufacturers rate their screens to indicate the altitude
parameters.
– For those who wish to listen to AM radio, or are Amateur
Radio operators (Hams) or Shortwave Listeners (SWL),
the Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) from these devices
can be irritating or disabling.
– Due to the strong infrared emissions inherent with the
technology, standard IR repeater systems can not be used
in the viewing room. A more expensive "plasma
compatible" sensor must be used.
Organic Light-Emitting Diode (OLED)
• An Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) - is a light-
emitting diode (LED) in which the emissive
electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compounds
which emit light in response to an electric current. This
layer of organic semiconductor material is situated
between two electrodes. Generally, at least one of these
electrodes is transparent.
• OLEDs are used in television set screens, computer
monitors, small, portable system screens such as mobile
phones and PDAs, watches, advertising, information,
and indication. OLEDs are also used in large-area light-
emitting elements for general illumination. Due to their
low thermal conductivity, they typically emit less light per
area than inorganic LEDs.
 Advantages of OLED
• Lower cost in the future: OLEDs can be printed onto any suitable substrate by an inkjet
printer or even by screen printing, theoretically making them cheaper to produce than
LCD or plasma displays. However, fabrication of the OLED substrate is more costly than
that of a TFT LCD, until mass production methods lower cost through scalability.
• Light weight & flexible plastic substrates: OLED displays can be fabricated on flexible
plastic substrates leading to the possibility of flexible organic light-emitting diodes being
fabricated or other new applications such as roll-up displays embedded in fabrics or
clothing. As the substrate used can be flexible such as PET (Polyethylene terephthalate),
the displays may be produced inexpensively.
• Wider viewing angles & improved brightness: OLEDs can enable a greater artificial
contrast ratio (both dynamic range and static, measured in purely dark conditions) and
viewing angle compared to LCDs because OLED pixels directly emit light. OLED pixel
colours appear correct and unshifted, even as the viewing angle approaches 90° from
normal.
• Better power efficiency: LCDs filter the light emitted from a backlight, allowing a small
fraction of light through so they cannot show true black, while an inactive OLED element
does not produce light or consume power.
• Response time: OLEDs can also have a faster response time than standard LCD
screens. Whereas LCD displays are capable of between 2 and 8 ms response time
offering a frame rate of ~200 Hz, an OLED can theoretically have less than 0.01 ms
response time enabling 100,000 Hz refresh rates.
 Disadvantages of OLED
• Current costs: OLED manufacture currently requires process steps
that make it extremely expensive. Specifically, it requires the use of
Low-Temperature Polysilicon backplanes; LTPS backplanes in turn
require laser annealing from an amorphous silicon start, so this part
of the manufacturing process for AMOLEDs starts with the process
costs of standard LCD, and then adds an expensive, time-consuming
process that cannot currently be used on large-area glass substrates.
• Lifespan: The biggest technical problem for OLEDs was the limited
lifetime of the organic materials. In particular, blue OLEDs historically
have had a lifetime of around 14,000 hours to half original brightness
(five years at 8 hours a day) when used for flat- panel displays.
• Color balance issues: Additionally, as the OLED material used to
produce blue light degrades significantly more rapidly than the
materials that produce other colors, blue light output will decrease
relative to the other colors of light. This differential color output
change will change the color balance of the display and is much more
noticeable than a decrease in overall luminance.
 Disadvantages of OLED
• Efficiency of blue OLEDs: Improvements to the efficiency and
lifetime of blue OLEDs is vital to the success of OLEDs as
replacements for LCD technology. Considerable research has been
invested in developing blue OLEDs with high external quantum
efficiency as well as a deeper blue color. External quantum
efficiency values of 20% and 19% have been reported for red (625
nm) and green (530 nm) diodes, respectively.However, blue diodes
(430 nm) have only been able to achieve maximum external
quantum efficiencies in the range of 4% to 6%.
• Water damage: Water can damage the organic materials of the
displays. Therefore, improved sealing processes are important for
practical manufacturing. Water damage may especially limit the
longevity of more flexible displays.
 Disadvantages of OLED
• Outdoor performance: As an emissive display technology, OLEDs
rely completely upon converting electricity to light, unlike most LCDs
which are to some extent reflective; e- ink leads the way in efficiency
with ~ 33% ambient light reflectivity, enabling the display to be used
without any internal light source. The metallic cathode in an OLED acts
as a mirror, with reflectance approaching 80%, leading to poor
readability in bright ambient light such as outdoors. However, with the
proper application of a circular polarizer and anti-reflective coatings,
the diffuse reflectance can be reduced to less than 0.1%. With 10,000
fc incident illumination (typical test condition for simulating outdoor
illumination), that yields an approximate photopic contrast of 5:1.
• Power consumption: While an OLED will consume around 40% of the
power of an LCD displaying an image which is primarily black, for the
majority of images it will consume 60–80% of the power of an LCD –
however it can use over three times as much power to display an
image with a white background such as a document or website. This
can lead to reduced real-world battery life in mobile devices.
 Disadvantages of OLED
• Screen burn-in: Unlike displays with a common light source, the
brightness of each OLED pixel fades depending on the content
displayed. The varied lifespan of the organic dyes can cause a
discrepancy between red, green, and blue intensity. This leads to
image persistence, also known as burn-in.
• UV sensitivity: OLED displays can be damaged by prolonged
exposure to UV light. The most pronounced example of this can be
seen with a near UV laser (such as a Bluray pointer) and can
damage the display almost instantly with more than 20 mW leading
to dim or dead spots where the beam is focused. This is usually
avoided by installing a UV blocking filter over the panel and this can
easily be seen as a clear plastic layer on the glass. Removal of this
filter can lead to severe damage and an unusable display after only
a few months of room light exposure.
 3D display
• A 3D display is any display device capable of conveying
a stereoscopic perception of 3-D depth to the viewer.
• The basic requirement is to present offset images that
are displayed separately to the left and right eye. Both of
these 2-D offset images are then combined in the brain
to give the perception of 3-D depth.
 Types of 3D displays
• Stereoscopic - Based on the principles of stereopsis, described by Sir
Charles Wheatstone in the 1830s, stereoscopic technology provides a
different image to the viewer's left and right eyes. Examples of this
technology include anaglyph images and polarized glasses.
Stereoscopic technologies generally involve special spectacles.
• Autostereoscopic - Autostereoscopic display technologies use optical
components in the display, rather than worn by the user, to enable each
eye to see a different image. The optics split the images directionally
into the viewer's eyes, so the display viewing geometry requires limited
head positions that will achieve the stereoscopic effect. Automultiscopic
displays provide multiple views of the same scene, rather than just two.
Each view is visible from a different range of positions in front of the
display. This allows the viewer to move left-right in front of the display
and see the correct view from any position. Example technologies
include parallax barriers and specular holography.
 Types of 3D displays
• Computer-generated holography - Research into holographic
displays has produced devices which are able to create a light field
identical to that which would emanate from the original scene, with
both horizontal and vertical parallax across a large range of viewing
angles. The effect is similar to looking through a window at the scene
being reproduced; this may make CGH the most convincing of the
3D display technologies, but as yet the large amounts of calculation
required to generate a detailed hologram largely prevent its
application outside of the laboratory.
• Volumetric displays - Volumetric displays use some physical
mechanism to display points of light within a volume. Such displays
use voxels instead of pixels. Volumetric displays include multiplanar
displays, which have multiple display planes stacked up, and rotating
panel displays, where a rotating panel sweeps out a volume.
• Other technologies have been developed to project light dots in the
air above a device. An infrared laser is focused on the destination in
space, generating a small bubble of plasma which emits visible light.