GEM 2020 Def

The Global E-waste
Monitor 2020
Quantities, flows, and the circular economy potential
Authors: Vanessa Forti, Cornelis Peter Baldé, Ruediger Kuehr, Garam Bel
Contributions by: S. Adrian, M. Brune Drisse, Y. Cheng, L. Devia, O. Deubzer,

F. Goldizen, J. Gorman, S. Herat, S. Honda, G. Iattoni, W. Jingwei, L. Jinhui,
D.S. Khetriwal, J. Linnell, F. Magalini, I.C. Nnororm, P. Onianwa, D. Ott, A.
Ramola, U. Silva, R. Stillhart, D. Tillekeratne, V. Van Straalen, M.
Wagner,
T. Yamamoto, X. Zeng
Supporting Contributors:
2
The Global E-waste Monitor 2020
Authors:
Vanessa Forti, Cornelis Peter Baldé, Ruediger Kuehr, Garam Bel
Contributions by:
S. Adrian, M. Brune Drisse, Y. Cheng, L. Devia, O. Deubzer, F. Goldizen, J. Gorman, S. Herat, S. Honda, G. Iattoni, W.
Jingwei, L. Jinhui, D.S. Khetriwal, J. Linnell, F. Magalini, I.C. Nnororm, P. Onianwa, D. Ott, A. Ramola, U. Silva, R.
Stillhart, D. Tillekeratne, V. Van Straalen, M. Wagner, T. Yamamoto, X. Zeng
3
Copyright
and publication information
4
C ontact information: Established in 1865, ITU is the intergovernmental body responsible for coordinating the
For enquiries, please contact the corresponding author C.P. Baldé via shared global use of the radio spectrum, promoting international cooperation in
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Please cite this publication as: world, and
Forti V., Baldé C.P., Kuehr R., Bel G. The Global E-waste Monitor 2020: establishingtheworldwidestandardsthatfosterseamlessinterconnectionofavastrangeof
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equipment, as well as other ubiquitous goods. SCYCLE leads the global e-waste
discussion and advances sustainable e-waste management strategies based on life-
cycle thinking. For detailed information on SCYCLE and its projects, including its
research and training activities, please visit www.scycle.info and © UNU/UNITAR and ITU,
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Sidki
5
Acknowledgments
6
The Global E-waste Monitor 2020 is a collaborative effort of the Sustainable Cycles • Innocent Chidi Nnororm (Abia State University) – Africa
(SCYCLE) Programme presently co-hosted by the United Nations University (UNU) • Percy Onianwa (Basel Convention Coordinating Centre for the African Region)
and the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR), the International – Africa
Telecommunication Union (ITU), and the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA). • Daniel Ott (RLG Americas) – Latin America
• Uca Silva (RELAC) – Latin America
This collaborative effort was made possible by financial contributions from: • Ruweyda Stillhart (SOFIES) – Policy & Legislation – Africa and Southeast Asia
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU) • Dulip Tillekeratne (CleanTech, GSMA) – Policy & Legislation – Africa and
• United Nations University (UNU) Southeast Asia
• International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) • Xianlai Zeng (Tsinghua University) – East and Southeast Asia
• World Health Organization (WHO)
• German Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) acting Design:
through the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ Nienke Haccoû | Op de Kaart |
GmbH) www.bureauopdekaart.nl
Authors Vanessa Forti, Kees Baldé, Ruediger Kuehr (UNU/UNITAR), and Garam Bel Photography:
(ITU) would like to thank the contributing authors and reviewers for their contribution Yassyn Sidki | Yassyn Sidki Photography |
to the preparation of this third edition of the Global E-waste Monitor. Contributing www.yassynsidki.com
authors and reviewers have contributed to the report in varying capacities; their Additional thanks to:
affiliations are included for identification purposes. Reed Miller (Yale University Center for Industrial Ecology), Giulia Iattoni
(UNU/UNITAR), Vincent Van Straalen (Statistics Netherlands), Michelle Wagner
P roject steering committee: (UNU/UNITAR), and Tales Yamamoto (Institute of Environmental Science – Leiden
Kees Baldé, Ruediger Kuehr (UNU/UNITAR), Garam Bel (ITU), Aditi Ramola University) for their support in data collection and analysis.
(ISWA).
C ontributors: The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the United
• Stephanie Adrian (US EPA) – North America Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) for their collaboration in distributing questionnaires
• Marie Noel Brune Drisse (WHO) – E-waste Impacts on the Health of Children on e-waste to various countries.
and Workers
• Yu-shu (Candy) Cheng (E-titanium Consulting, Inc) – Taiwan, Province of China Terry Collins and Mijke Hertoghs (ITU) for their support in the launch of the publication
• Leila Devia (Basel Convention Regional Centre for South America) – South and the media campaign.
America
• Otmar Deubzer (UNU/UNITAR SCYCLE) – The Potential of E-waste in a
Circular Economy
• Fiona Goldizen (WHO consultant) – E-waste Impacts on the Health of Children
and Workers
• Julia Gorman (WHO consultant) – E-waste Impacts on the Health of Children
and Workers
• Sunil Herat (Griffith University) – Oceania
• Shunichi Honda (United Nations Environment Programme) – Japan
• Wang Jingwei (Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for WEEE Recycling)
– East and Southeast Asia
• Li Jinhui (Tsinghua University) – East and Southeast Asia
• Deepali Sinha Khetriwal (UNU/UNITAR) – South Asia
• Jason Linnell (Electronic Recycling) – North America
• Federico Magalini (SOFIES) – Policy & Legislation – Africa and Southeast Asia
7
Foreword
UNU, ITU, and ISWA
8
Electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) has become an essential part of everyday This third edition of the Global E-waste Monitor is a result of the GESP and its close
life. Its availability and widespread use have enabled much of the global population to collaborators; a follow-up to the 2017 edition and UNU-SCYCLE’s groundbreaking
benefit from higher standards of living. However, the way in which we produce, Global E-waste Monitor 2014. This report shows that the global growth in the
consume, and dispose of e-waste is unsustainable. Because of the slow adoption of generation of e-waste continues.
collection and recycling, externalities –such as the consumption of resources, the
emission of greenhouse gases, and the release of toxic substances during informal In 2019, the world generated 53.6 million metric tons (Mt), and only 17.4% of this was
recycling procedures– illustrate the problem to remain within sustainable limits. officially documented as properly collected and recycled. It grew with 1.8 Mt since
Consequently, many countries are challenged by the considerable environmental and 2014, but the total e-waste generation increased by 9.2 Mt. This indicates that the
human health risks of inadequately managed Waste Electrical and Electronic recycling activities are not keeping pace with the global growth of e-waste.
Equipment (WEEE), widely known as e-waste. Even countries with a formal e-waste
management system in place are confronted with relatively low collection and Besides a global perspective, this report includes national and regional analysis on e-
recycling rates. waste quantities and legislative instruments. Although 71% of the world’s population is
Monitoring the quantities and flows of e-waste is essential for evaluating developments covered by some form of e-waste policy, legislation, or regulation, greater efforts must
over time, and to set and assess targets towards a sustainable society and circular be made towards implementation and enforcement in order to encourage the take-up
economy. The development of a recycling infrastructure, sound policies, and legal of a collection and recycling infrastructure.
instruments are more efficiently implemented on the basis of sound e-waste data.
Without a global picture of e-waste, the true nature of transboundary movements and, The Global E-waste Monitor 2020 introduces the wider public to the global e-waste
in some cases, illegal shipments will also be incomprehensible. challenge, explains how the challenge currently fits into international efforts to reach
the SDGs, and discusses how to create a circular economy and sustainable societies.
Building on the Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development, the United Nations In parallel, we encourage decision-makers to increase their activities to measure and
University (UNU), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), and the monitor e-waste by using and adopting the internationally recognised methodological
International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), in close collaboration with the United framework developed by UNU-SCYCLE, in collaboration with the Partnership on
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), have joined forces in the Global E-waste Measuring ICT for Development.
Statistics Partnership (GESP). Since late 2019, the United Nations Institute for
Training and Research (UNITAR) has been co-hosting SCYCLE, UNU’s specialized We would like to thank all authors and contributors for this report, and we invite you
programme on e-waste. The GESP collects data from countries in an internationally to collaborate with the GESP and support our continuous efforts to improve the global
standardized way and ensures that this information is publicly available via its open- understanding and environmentally sound management of e-waste.
source global e-waste database, www.globalewaste.org. Since 2017, the GESP has
made substantial efforts by expanding national and regional capacity on e-waste
statistics in various countries. Ruediger Kuehr Doreen Bogdan-Martin Antonis Mavropoulos
Ultimately, the GESP assists countries in compiling e-waste statistics that are useful Director of the Director of the President of the
for national policy-making with an internationally recognised, harmonised Sustainable Cycles Telecommunication International Solid Waste
measurement framework. The GESP brings together policy makers, statisticians, and Programme, Development Bureau, Association (ISWA)
industry representatives to enhance quality, understanding, and interpretation of e- UNU & UNITAR, (SCYCLE) International Telecommu-
waste data. At the global level, the GESP contributes to the monitoring of relevant nication Union (ITU)
waste streams, measuring progress made towards reaching the Sustainable
Development Goals 11.6, 12.4, and 12.5. Recently, e-waste has officially been included
in the work plan for the
12.4.2 and 12.5.1 indicator and in the documentation pertaining to this indicator. The
GESP allows international organizations, such as the ITU, to measure progress towards
their own goals. In 2018, the highest policy-making body of the ITU, the
Plenipotentiary Conference, established a target of increasing the global e-waste
recycling rate to 30% by 2023. This would correspond to a 12.6% increase in today’s
9
global average.
Table
of contents
10
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................. 12
Chapter 1. What is EEE and E-waste? ................................................................................. 16
Chapter 2. Global E-waste Key Statistics ..........................................................................20
Chapter 3. How E-waste Data Contribute to the SDGs ..................................................28
Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics ..........................................................................32
Chapter 5. Worldwide Harmonisation by the Global E-waste Statistics

Partnership..................................................................................................................................42
Chapter 6. E-waste Legislation and Transboundary Movement ...............................50
Chapter 7. The Potential of E-waste in a Circular Economy .......................................56
Chapter 8. E-waste Impact on the Health of Children and Workers ........................62
Chapter 9. Regional E-waste Key Statistics .....................................................................68

Africa ....................................................................................................................................... 70
Americas ................................................................................................................................ 72
Asia ............................................................................................................................................74
Europe ...................................................................................................................................... 76
Oceania ................................................................................................................................... 78
Endnotes.......................................................................................................................................80
Literature ..................................................................................................................................... 84
About the Authors .................................................................................................................... 94
Annex 1: UNU-KEYS and Link to E-waste Categories ...................................................96

Annex 2: Methodology ...........................................................................................................100
Annex 3: Country E-waste Key Statistics ........................................................................104
11
Executive
Summary
12
1
The consumption of Electrical and Electronic op e 2 M
ur
t
Equipment (EEE) is strongly linked to widespread
E
s 13. 1 2 4. 9 Mt
ica ia
global economic development. EEE has become er As
M
Am
t
indispensable in modern societies and is enhancing
living standards, but its production and usage can be
very resource- demanding, as such also illustrates a Higher le v els of
counter to that very improvement in living standards. disposable i n c o me
Higher levels of disposable incomes, growing c a 2. 9 M ni a0. 7
ri ea
M
t
urbanization and mobility, and further industrialization
t
Af
Oc
in some parts of the world are leading to growing 53.6 Mt
amounts of EEE. On average, the total weight 7.3 kg per capita
Gl o
(excluding photovoltaic panels) of global EEE
19
b
consumption increases annually by 2.5 million l
20
a
e-
wa ed
metric tons (Mt). s t e g e n e r at
After its use, EEE is disposed of, generating a waste
stream that contains hazardous and valuable
materials. This waste stream is referred to as e-
EEE E-waste
waste, or Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
(WEEE), a term used mainly in Europe.
This monitor provides the most comprehensive Urbanization
14 Mt
update of global e-waste statistics. In 2019, the world
Mt t h
w
2 0 9. 2
generated a striking 53.6 Mt of e-waste, an
2. ro
lg
of
a h
5
average of 7.3 kg per capita. The global generation n u of wt c e
An Gr o s i n
of e-waste grew by 9.2 Mt since 2014 and is
projected to grow to
74.7 Mt by 2030 – almost doubling in only 16 years.
The growing amount of e-waste is mainly fueled by
higher consumption rates of EEE, short life cycles,
and few repair options. Asia generated the highest
quantity of e-waste in 2019 at 24.9 Mt, followed by
the Americas (13.1 Mt) and Europe (12 Mt), while
Africa and Oceania generated 2.9 Mt and 0.7 Mt,
respectively. Europe ranked first worldwide in terms
of e-waste generation per capita, with 16.2 kg per Industrialization Higher c onsumpt io n Short life Few repair
capita. Oceania was second (16.1 kg per capita), rates of EEE cycles options
followed by the Americas (13.3 kg per capita), while
Asia and Africa generated just 5.6 and 2.5 kg per
capita, respectively.
Executive Summary 13
In 2019, the formal documented collection and • The majority of undocumented domestic and In middle- and low-income countries, the e-waste
recycling was 9.3 Mt, thus 17.4% compared to e- commercial e-waste is probably mixed with other management infrastructure is not yet fully developed
waste generated. It grew with 1.8 Mt since 2014, an waste streams, such as plastic waste and metal or, in some cases, is entirely absent. Hence, e-waste
annual growth of almost 0.4 Mt. However, the total waste. This means that easily recyclable fractions is managed mostly by the informal sector. In this
e-waste generation increased by 9.2 Mt, with an might be recycled but often under inferior case, e-waste is often handled under inferior
annual growth of almost 2 Mt. Thus the recycling conditions without depollution and without the conditions, causing severe health effects to workers
activities are not keeping pace with the global growth recovery of all valuable materials. Therefore, such as well as to the children who often live, work and
of e-waste. The statistics show that in 2019, the recycling is not preferred. play near e-waste management activities.
continent with the highest collection and recycling
rate was Europe with 42.5%, Asia ranked second at
11.7%, the Americas and Oceania were similar at
9.4% and 8.8%, respectively, and Africa had the e ge ner
lowest rate at 0.9%. as t at
Mt
Global e-waste w Global e-waste
e-
0 1 1. 8
ed
The fate of 82.6% (44.3 Mt) of e-waste generated documented to flows that
of
4
h
l
wt e 2
2 01
Gl o ba
in 2019 is uncertain, and its whereabouts and the Gr os i n c be collected and are not
environmental impact varies across the different properly recycled 53.6 Mt documented
9
regions. In high income countries, a waste recycling 17.4% | 9.3 Mt 82.6% | 44.3 Mt
7.3 kg per capita
infrastructure is usually developed, and:
• Around 8% of the e-waste is discarded in waste
bins and subsequently landfilled or incinerated.
This is mostly comprised of small equipment and Collecti on and recycling rates
Af A E
small IT.
ur
m
is estimated to be
ri
e ri
op
• Discarded products can sometimes still be ca
e
exported as
c as
refurbished and reused, and thus are usually 0.9% 9.4% 42.5% 7- second- hand
shipped as second-hand products from high- 20% products or e-waste
income to low- or middle-income countries.
O A
However, a considerable amount of e-waste is
ce
si
a
is discarded
an
still exported illegally or under the guise of being

ia
8% into waste bins

for reuse or pretending to be scrap metal. It can 8.8% 11.7 i n high-
be assumed that the volume of transboundary %
incom e
movements of used EEE or e-waste ranges from countries
7-20% of the e-waste generated.
Recycled m aterials
are reclaimed
iron
aluminium copper
14 Executive Summary
20 20 20
Since 2014, the number of countries that have adopted a national e-waste
14
17
19
policy, legislation, or regulation has increased from 61 to 78. However,
regulatory advances in some regions are slow, enforcement is poor, and policy,
legislation, or regulation does not yet stimulate the collection and proper
management of e-waste due to lack of investment and political motivation. In
addition, the product scope in the legislation is usually different than the e-waste
classification systems suggested by the commonly used, internationally
harmonised methodological framework on e-waste statistics. These differences in 61 countries 67 countries 78 countries
the product scopes lead to a lack of harmonisation of e-waste statistics across covered by covered by covered by
countries. legislati on, policy, an d legislati on, policy, an d legislati on, policy, an d
regulati on regulati on regulati on
E-waste contains several toxic additives or hazardous substances, such as
mercury, brominated flame retardants (BFR), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), or
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). The increasing levels of e-waste, low collection e g e n e ra
as t t
rates, and non-environmentally sound disposal and treatment of this waste stream Global e-waste flows that are
-w Global e-waste documented to be
ed
not documented collected and properly recycled
pose significant risks to the environment and to human health. A total of 50 t of
le
201
Gl o b a
mercury and 71 kt of BFR plastics are found in globally undocumented flows of
53.6 Mt
9
e-waste annually, which is largely released into the environment and impacts the
7.3 kg per capita
health of the exposed workers. 82.6% | 44.3 Mt 17.4% | 9.3
Mt
Improper management of e-waste also contributes to global warming. First of
all, if the materials in e-waste are not recycled, they cannot substitute primary raw
materials and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from extraction and refinement of 4 Mt
Brominated
71 kt amount of raw
primary raw materials. Next, the refrigerants that are found in some temperature Flam e
Retar- dants
materials
exchange equipment are greenhouse gases. A total of 98 Mt of CO -equivalents (BFR) $57 billion USD
2 value of raw
were released into the atmosphere from discarded fridges and air- 98 Mt
materials in e-w aste
conditioners that were not managed in an environmentally sound manner. This is CO2 $10 billion USD
value of raw
approximately 0.3% of global energy-related emissions in 2019 (IEA). Mercury Aluminium
Iron materials
50 t Copper
(Hydro)chlorofuoro-
carbons ((H)CFCs)
E-waste is an 'urban mine', as it contains several precious, critical, and other non-
critical metals that, if recycled, can be used as secondary materials. The value of
raw materials in the global e-waste generated in 2019 is equal to approximately
$57 billion USD. Iron, copper, and gold contribute mostly to this value. With the
current documented collection and recycling rate of 17.4%, a raw material value of In summary, it is essential to substantially increase the officially documented 17.4%
$10 billion USD is recovered in an environmental sound way from e-waste globally, global e-waste collection and recycling rate, especially in view of the rapid growth
and 4 Mt of raw materials could be made available for recycling. The recycling of of this waste stream, which is already projected to reach 74.7 Mt by 2030,
iron, aluminium, and copper contributed to a net saving of 15 Mt of CO2 , combined with increasing recovery of materials towards closed material loops and
equivalent to emissions from the recycling of secondary raw materials substituted reducing the use of virgin materials.
to virgin materials.
Executive Summary 15
Chapter 1
What is EEE and
E-waste?
16
17
What is EEE and E-waste?
EEE includes a wide range of products with circuity or electrical components with a
power or battery supply (Step Initiative 2014). Almost any household or business use
products like basic kitchen appliances, toys, tools to music, and ICT items, such as
mobile phones, laptops, etc.
Besides everyday household and business use, EEE are becoming increasingly used in
transport, health, security systems, and generators of energy, such as photovoltaics.
Traditional products, such as clothes and furniture, are often equipped with electrical
components, and consequently are increasingly contributing to the global e-waste
generated. More and more EEE is also employed in the expanding sector of the
Internet of Things (IoT), such as sensors or devices pertaining to the concept of the
“smart home” or “smart cities”.
EEE becomes e-waste once it has been discarded by its owner as waste without the
intent of reuse (Step Initiative 2014). Each product has different material content, is
disposed of and recycled in different ways, and is unequally harmful to the
environment and human health if not managed in an environmentally sound manner.
EEE comprises of a large variety of products. For statistical purposes, however, EEE is
classified by similar function, comparable material composition, average weight, and
similar end-of-life attributes. The E-waste Statistics Guidelines on Classification
Reporting and Indicators – Second Edition (Forti, Baldé, and Kuehr 2018) therefore
divides EEE into 54 different product-centric categories. The categorization is referred
to as the UNU- KEYs. The full list of UNU-KEYs can be viewed in Annex 1.
The 54 EEE product categories are grouped into six general categories that correspond
closely to their waste management characteristics.
18 C hapter 1. What is EEE and E-

Waste?
1. Temperature exchange equipment: 4 . Large equipment:
more commonly referred to as cooling and freezing typical equipment includes washing machines, clothes
equipment. Typical equipment includes refrigerators, dryers, dishwashing machines, electric stoves, large
freezers, air conditioners, and heat pumps. printing machines, copying equipment, and
photovoltaic panels.
2. Screens and monitors: 5. S mall equipment:

typical equipment includes televisions, monitors, typical equipment includes vacuum cleaners, microwaves,
laptops, notebooks, and tablets. ventilation equipment, toasters, electric kettles, electric
shavers, scales, calculators, radio sets, video cameras,
electrical and electronic toys, small electrical and
electronic tools, small medical devices, small monitoring,
and control instruments.
3. Lamps: 6. Small IT and Telecommunication equipment:

typical equipment includes fluorescent lamps, typical equipment includes mobile phones, Global
high intensity discharge lamps, and LED lamps. Positioning System (GPS) devices, pocket calculators,
routers, personal computers, printers, and
USB
telephones.
E-waste systems and schemes do not yet cover any kind of batteries,
accumulators, or electrical components of vehicles.
Currently, this categorization is compliant with both the WEEE directive adopted
by European member states (European Paliament 2003) and the internationally
recognised framework for e-waste statistics described in the aforementioned
Guidelines (Forti, Baldé, and Kuehr 2018) that are used in this report.
C hapter 1. What is EEE and E- 19

Waste?
Chapter 2
Global E-waste
Key Statistics
20
21
Electric and electronic products are an essential They can be found in households and businesses all
feature that contribute to global development and around the world. However, ownership per capita
comprise a large variety of products that are used varies per income level.
in daily life.
Global average number of selected appliances owned per capita, by country's income level
High income High/middle income Middle income Middle/low income Low income
Average household size: Average household size: Average household size: Average household size: Average household size:
2.8 3.6 4.5 5.3 5.0
Average purchasing power Average purchasing power Average purchasing power Average purchasing power Average purchasing power
parity in USD per capita: parity in USD per capita: parity in USD per capita: parity in USD per capita: parity in USD per capita:
51.581 21.697 9.874 3.503 1.261
0.7 1.6 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.02 0.1
16 0.4 8 0.2 6 0.1 6 0.01 4 0.001
0.4 1.4 0.1 1.2 0.03 1 0.01 0.9 0.003 0.6
Fridges Laptops Lamps Washing machines Microwaves Mobile phone

(incl. combi-fridges) (incl. tablets) (incl. combined dryers) (incl. combined, excl. grills)
subscriptions
22 Chapter 2. Global E-waste Key Statistics

wa st e ge ne a s t e ge n
l e- e- w er
a
a al
ra
a st e Ge n
-w
te
t ed
b
Gl o
Gl o
lE
t
d
M
53.6 Mt
er
Gr o 9 . 2
74.7 Mt
a
wt h of
at e
4
Gl ob
01
s in c e 2
44.4 Mt
d
7.3 kg per capita
9 kg per capita
6.4 kg per capita
2014 2019 2030
17.0% | 7.5
Mt Global e-waste documented Global e-waste flows that are not
to
be documented
collected and
properly
Gr
w
o
th 17.4% | 9.3 82.6% | 44.3 43.7 Mt of e-waste is unknown; this e-waste is

si of 1
nc . 8 Mt Mt Mt likely dumped, traded, or recycled in a
e2
0 14 non-environmentally sound way
0.6 Mt is estimated to end up in waste bins in EU

countries
In 2019, approximately 53.6 million metric tons (Mt) are not keeping pace with the global growth of e-
of e-waste (excluding PV panels) was generated, or waste.
7.3 kg per capita. It is estimated that the amount of Statistics on e-waste collected and recycled are consistent or systematic manner. The lack of data on
e-waste generated will exceed 74Mt in 2030. Thus, based on data reported by countries. The most formally collected and recycled e-waste implies that
the global quantity of e-waste is increasing at an recent information available on the e-waste most of the e-waste generated in 2019 (44.3 Mt) is
alarming rate of almost 2 Mt per year. documented as formally collected and recycled managed outside the official collection system and,
worldwide refers on average to the year 2016 (see in some cases, is shipped to developing countries. In
In 2019, the formal documented collection and Annex 2 for the methodology and Annex 3 for households of higher income countries, small-size
recycling was 9.3 Mt, thus 17.4% compared to e- the country data). electronics can end up in normal waste bins and be
waste generated. It grew with 1.8 Mt since 2014, an In 2019, the large majority of e-waste generated disposed with the municipal solid waste. Therefore, it
annual growth of almost 0.4 Mt. However, the total (82.6%) was most likely not formally collected and is not subjected to proper recycling, resulting in a
e-waste generation increased by 9.2 Mt, with an not managed in an environmental sound manner. loss of materials. It is estimated that in EU
annual growth of almost 2 Mt. This illustrates that Those flows are usually not documented in a countries, 0.6 Mt of e-waste ends up in waste bins
recycling activities (Rotter et al. 2016).
Chapter 2. Global E-waste Key Statistics 23

Global E-waste Generated by year t
si nc e 2 si nc e 2
8M Mt
01
01
. 7
6.
4
2014 kg per capita 6.4 44.4 Mt 2014 10 +7% -1%
2015 6.6 46.4 2015
2016 6.8 48.2 2016
2017 6.9 50.0 2017
2018 7.1 51.8 2018
2019 7.3 53.6 2019
2020 7.5 55.5 2020
2021 7.6 57.4 2021 Temperature exchange Screens
2022 7.8 59.4 2022 equipment and monitors
2023 8.0 61.3 2023

0 5 0 6 0 70
30 4 80
2024 8.2 0
10
20 90
10
0
63.3 2024
2025 8.3 65.3 2025 si nc e 2 si nc e 2
Mt t
2026 8.5 67.2 2026
1M
01
01
9 .
0. 13
4
2027 8.6 69.2 2027 +4% +5%
2028 8.8 71.1 2028
2029 8.9 72.9 2029

Mt
2030 9.0 74.7 2030
10 8 6 4 0 20 40 60 80 100
2
(Futur quence s rel ated to he Covid-19 crisis)

e projections do not take into account economic t
conse Lamps
en
Large t
equipm
The global quantity of e-waste in 2019 is mainly (+5%), and Lamps and Small equipment (+4%).
si nc e 2 si nc e 2
comprised of Small equipment (17.4 Mt), Large This trend is driven by the growing consumption of t Mt
4M
01
01
. 7
equipment (13.1 Mt), and Temperature exchange these products in lower income countries, where 4.
4
17 +4% +2%
equipment (10.8 Mt). Screens and monitors, Small the products enhance living standards. Small IT and
IT and telecommunication equipment, and Lamps telecommunication equipment have been growing at
represent a smaller share of the e-waste generated lower speed, and Screens and monitors have shown
in 2019: 6.7 Mt, 4.7 Mt, and 0.9 Mt, respectively. a slight decrease (-1%). This decline can be
Since 2014, the e-waste categories that have been explained by the fact that, lately, heavy CRT USB
increasing the most (in terms of total weight of e- monitors and screens have been replaced by lighter
waste generated) are the Temperature exchange flat panel displays, resulting in a decrease of the
Small Small IT and telecom-
equipment (with an annual average of 7%), Large total weight even as the number of pieces continue equipment munication equipment
equipment to grow.

Europe
12 Mt (16.2 kg per capita)

e-waste generated
Asia
5.1 Mt | 42.5%
e-waste documented
24.9 Mt (5.6 kg per capita)
Americas to be collected and
e-waste generated
properly recycled
2.9 Mt | 11.7%
13.1 Mt (13.3 kg per capita) e-waste documented
e-waste generated to be collected and
properly recycled
1.2 Mt | 9.4% Africa
e-waste documented
to be collected and
properly recycled 2.9 Mt (2.5 kg per
capita)
e-waste
generated
0.03 Mt | 0.9%
e-waste documented
Oceania
to be collected and
0.7 Mt (16.1 kg per capita)
e-waste generated
0.06 Mt | 8.8%
In 2019, most of the e-waste was generated in Asia Current statistics show that in 2019, Asia ranked e-waste documented
to be collected and
(24.9 Mt), while the continent that generates the second at 11.7%, the Americas and Oceania stood at properly recycled
most in kg per capita is Europe (16.2 kg per capita). 9.4% and 8.8%, respectively, while Africa ranked last
Europe is also the continent with the highest at 0.9%. However, statistics can vary substantially
documented formal e-waste collection and recycling across different regions as the consumption and
rate (42.5%). In all other continents, the e-waste disposal behavior depends on a number of factors
documented as formally collected and recycled is (e.g. income level, policy in place, structure of the
substantially lower than the estimated e-waste waste management system, etc.).(2)
generated.

2014 2017 2019
44% 66% 71%

As of October 2019, 71% of the world’s population
was covered by a national e-waste policy, legislation,
or regulation. Improvements have been made since
2014 when only 44% of the population was covered. population covered population covered population covered
The high coverage rate is affected by the fact that by legislation, policy, by legislation, policy, by legislation, policy,
the most populous countries, such as China and or regulation or regulation or regulation
India, have national legal instruments in place.
However, this population coverage equates to only
78 of the 193 countries. Thus, less than half of all
countries in the world are currently covered by a
policy, legislation, or regulation.
61 countries 67 countries 78 countries

covered by legislation, covered by legislation, covered by legislation,
policy, and regulation policy, and regulation policy, and regulation

Chapter 3
How E-waste Data Contribute
to the SDGs
28
29
In September 2015, the United Nations and all member states adopted the ambitious
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and identified 17 Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets for ending poverty, protecting the planet, and ensuring
prosperity for all over a 15-year span. Increasing levels of e-waste, improper and
unsafe treatment, and disposal through incineration or in landfills pose significant
challenges to the environment, human health, and to the achievement of the SGDs.
Progress towards attaining the SDGs and their 169 targets are measured by indicators
and official statistics. Several targets and indicators are defined or are currently in the
process of being measured as part of monitoring progress. Per target, a custodian
agency, or agencies, have been defined to guide the process.
E-waste management closely relates to many SDGs, such as SDG 8 on decent work
and economic growth, SDG 3 on good health and well-being, SDG 6 on clean waste
and sanitation, and SDG 14 on life below water. In particular, given the high raw
material demand for the production of EEE, e-waste also closely relates to the SDG
indicators on the material footprint (SDGs 8.4.1 and 12.1.1) and the SDGs on the
domestic material consumption (SDGs 8.4.2 and 12.2.2). Relatively general indicators
are being used to measure progress towards these SDGs. By contrast, for e-waste, a
more specific sub- indicator has been recognised for monitoring growth in the waste
stream, which is of particular concern due to both its potential hazardousness and its
high residual value. E-waste has been officially included in the work plan for the 12.5.1
SDG indicator and in the documentation around the indicator. (3) The importance of
considering e-waste is discussed further in SDG indicator 12.4.2 on hazardous waste.
30 Chapter 3. How E-waste Data Contribute to the SDGs

E-waste is covered namely by SDGs 11 and
12.
SDG 12.5.1 National recycling rate and tons of material
Goal 11: Make cities and human recycled (e-waste sub-indicator)
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and
sustainable The e-waste sub-indicator in SDG 12.5.1 has been defined as:
Target 11.6: By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities by Total e-waste recycled
SDG 12.5.1 Sub-indicator on e-waste
paying special attention to air quality as well as municipal and other waste = Total e-waste generated
management. Since over half of the world’s population lives in cities, rapid
urbanization requires new solutions to address rising environmental and human health Where the “Total e-waste recycled” is equivalent to the “E-waste formally
risks, especially in densely populated areas. Most e-waste will be generated in cities, collected”, which is defined in E-Waste Statistics Guidelines (Forti, Baldé,
and it is particularly important to properly manage e-waste in urban areas, improve and Kuehr 2018) as the amount of e-waste that is collected as such by
collection and recycling rates, and reduce the amount of e-waste that ends up in
the formal collection system. The “e-waste generated” is defined as the
dumpsites. The move towards smart cities and the use of ICTs for waste
management offer new and exciting opportunities. amount of discarded electrical and electronic products (e-waste) due to
Indicator 11.6.1: Percentage of urban solid waste regularly collected and with adequate consumption within a national territory in a given reporting year, prior to
final discharge with regard to the total waste generated by the city. any collection, reuse, treatment, or export.
Goal 12: Ensure sustainable consumption and For methodology and datasets, the custodian agencies UNEP and UNSD
production patterns use the datasets and methodologies developed by SCYCLE, the Global E-
waste Statistics Partnership, and the Partnership Measuring ICT for
Development. With the current data, the SDG 12.5.1 sub-indicator on the e-
Target 12.4: By 2030, achieve the environmentally sound management of chemicals waste recycling rate is 17.4% for 2019.
and all waste throughout the life cycle, in accordance with agreed-upon international
frameworks, and significantly reduce their release into air, water, and soil in order to
minimize their adverse impacts on human health and the environment.
Indicator 12.4.2: Treatment of waste, generation of hazardous waste, and hazardous

waste management, by type of treatment.
Target 12.5: By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention,

reduction, repair, recycling, and reuse.
An increasing number of people on the planet are consuming growing amounts
of goods, and it is critical to make production and consumption more sustainable by
raising awareness levels of producers and consumers, specifically in the area of
electrical and electronic equipment.
Indicator 12.5.1 National recycling rate and tons of material recycled.
Chapter 3. How E-waste Data Contribute to the SDGs 31

Chapter 4
Measuring
E-waste Statistics
32
33
Monitoring the quantities and flows of e-waste is essential e-waste data. Understanding the quantities and flows absence of any quantification of transboundary
for evaluating developments over time, for setting and of e-waste provides a basis for monitoring, movements or informal e-waste activities, policy makers
assessing targets. The development of sound policies controlling, and ultimately preventing illegal at the national, regional, and international levels will not
and legal instruments can only be achieved with better transportation, dumping, and improper treatment of be in a position to address these issues.
e-waste. In the
Reduce e-waste Promote Quantify the magnitude of Set appropriate collection

generation recycling the e-waste challenges and recycling targets
U
iron SB
aluminium
copper
Nati onal
Global
Prevent dumping and emissions, as well Create green jobs in the refur- Establish prioriti es for policy makers, i nfl u - Allocate adequate
as the improper treatment of e-waste bishment and recycling sectors encing regulations, and setting policy targets fi nancia l resource s
At the global level, better data will help to minimize e-waste generation as a result ITU Plenipotentiary Conference of increasing the global e-waste recycling rate to 30%
of taking stock of the challenges and having the basis to make targeted policy by 2023.
interventions. Understanding the quantities of e-waste better helps and setting up
ad-hoc instruments to promote recycling. Understanding the potential for e-waste Meanwhile, at the national level, harmonised and coherent e-waste data will also
recycling and refurbishment activities enables a forecast of potential green job contribute to estimating the magnitude of challenges relating to e-waste, setting
creation in the refurbishment and recycling sectors. Having better e-waste data is appropriate collection and recycling targets, establishing priorities for policy makers,
essential in order to measure progress towards the global target set in 2018 at the influencing regulations, setting policy targets, and allocating adequate financial
resources.
34 Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics

The internationally standardized methodology for measuring e-waste has been Nowadays, thereareonlyafewdatasourcesone-
developed by the UNU SCYCLE Programme, in collaboration with the Task Group on wastestatisticsthathaveglobalcoverage, such as the WEEE Calculation tools
Measuring E-waste within the UN Partnership on Measuring ICT for Development. The developed by UNU-SCYCLE (European Commission 2019). International agencies,
first edition of the E-waste Statistics Guidelines on classification, reporting, and such as the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the
indicators was published in 2015 and authored by UNU-SCYCLE ( 4 ) , and underwent OECD Working Party on Environmental Information (WPEI), targeting non-EU OECD
global consultation (Baldé, et al. 2015). The second edition was updated by UNU in Member States, the United Nations Environment (UNEP), and the United Nations
2018 (Forti, Baldé, and Kuehr 2018). The international methodology helps to Statistics Division (UNSD, Environment Statistics Section) have recently begun
harmonize the measurement framework and indicators, proving to be a substantial gathering data on e-waste through specific questionnaires addressed to the ministries
step towards reaching an integrated and comparable global measurement framework in charge of e-waste monitoring or National Statistical Offices. Several countries
for e-waste. The same concepts formed the basis for the first Global E-waste Monitor outside the EU still lack a measurement framework for measuring e-waste statistics.
(Baldé, Wang et al. 2015), and they are also used in the European Union as the Other less developed countries lack a waste management infrastructure, specific
common methodology to calculate the collection target of the recast EU-WEEE legislation, and/or enforcement. Most importantly, the majority of the countries,
Directive (EU WEEE Directive 2012/19/EU). including those that have received a survey, have reported the unavailability of official
The framework captures and measures the most essential features of a country's e- data on e-waste formally collected and recycled.
waste. The following indicators can be constructed from the framework:
1. Total EEE Placed on the Market (POM) (unit kg per capita).This represents the
size of the national e-goods market.
2. Total e-waste generated (unit kg per capita). This represents the size of the
national e-waste generated.
3. E-waste formally collected (unit kg per capita). This represents the amount
of e-waste that is collected as such by the formal collection system.
total e-waste recycled
4. E-waste collection rate x 100 per
= total e-waste generated cent
This indicator represents the performance of the formal collection
systems.
Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics 35

The E-waste Statistics Guidelines describe a
measurement framework that captures the most
important dynamics of flows and stocks of EEE and
Legislation, Policies, Expenditures (Countering Illicit Trade,
e-waste. Financing, Environmental Protection), and Benefits
(Environmental, Reclaimed Materials, Jobs)
Life-tim e
Production 1. Market Entry 2. Use phase, including 3. E-waste

and Trade items in hibernation
Generated Import
Trade
&
Export
The measurement framework starts with After the equipment has been sold, it stays in The third phase is when the product becomes
tracking the “production and trade” of EEE. households or businesses for some time until it is obsolete to its final owner, is disposed of, and
There is a strong link between trade statistics disposed of. This period is called “lifetime”. The turns to waste, which is referred to as “e-
and national production statistics. In this stage, equipment in households, businesses, and the waste generated”. It is the annual supply of
the data is collected and published by custom public sector is referred to as the “use phase”, domestically generated e-waste prior to
organizations and/or national statistical and includes the items that are in hibernation. collection without imports of externally
institutes. By deducting the exports from the This is destined to become e-waste in the future. generated e-waste.
EEE imported and domestically produced, one The lifetime includes the dormant time in sheds
is able to obtain data on EEE POM. The market and exchange of second-hand equipment
entry includes EEE placed on the market by between households and businesses within the
households, businesses, and the public sector. country.

Scenario 1:
E-waste formally collected
E-waste
Generated
Scenario 2:
E-waste in waste bins
The e-waste generated is usually

managed in one of four ways ( 5 )
Scenario 3:
E-waste collected outside of formal systems
in countries with a developed (e-)waste
management infrastructure
Scenario 4:
E-waste collected outside of formal systems
in countries with no developed (e-)waste
management infrastructure

Scenario 1.
E-waste formally collected
The “formal collection” activities usually fall under

the requirements of national e-waste legislation, in
which e-waste is collected by designated
E-WASTE organizations, producers, and/or the government.
RECYCLIN This happens via retailers, municipal collection
points, and/or pick-up services. The final destination
G forathe
is collectedtreatment
specialized e-waste facility, which recovers the
valuable materials in an environmentally controlled
way and manages the hazardous substances in an
environmental sound way. Residuals will then go to
incineration or controlled landfills.
E-WASTE E-WASTE
RECYC
NG
RECYCLI LING
RETAIL STORE
COLLECTIO
N POINT
US
B
COMMERCIAL
PICK-UP
MUNICIPAL PICK-UP SERVICE SERVICE

Scenario 2.
E-waste in waste bins
In this scenario, the holder directly disposes of e-

waste in normal waste bins with other types of
household waste. As a consequence, the
disposed e-waste is then treated with the regular
mixed-waste from households. This waste is most
likely incinerated or landfilled without material
recycling, depending on the waste management
infrastructure in a country. Neither option is
regarded as an appropriate technique for treating e-
waste because both could potentially negatively
impact the environment and lead to resource loss.

Scenario 3.
E-waste collected outside of formal
systems in countries with a
developed (e-)waste management
infrastructure
In countries that have developed waste management

laws, e-waste is collected by individual waste
dealers or companies and traded through various
channels. Possible destinations for e-waste in this
scenario include metal recycling and plastic
recycling; however, the hazardous substances in e-
METAL PLASTIC waste are most likely not depolluted. In this
RECYCLIN RECYCLIN scenario, e-waste is often not treated in a
G G specialized recycling facility for e-waste
management, and e-waste might also be exported.
PLASTIC
RECYCLIN
G
METAL
RECYCLING
INDIVIDUAL
EXPORT
WASTE
COMPANIES

Scenario 4.
E-waste collected outside of formal
systems in countries with no
developed (e-)waste management
infrastructure
In most developing countries, a significant number of

informally self-employed people are engaged in the
collection and recycling of e-waste. The collection
happens from door-to-door by buying or collecting
used-EEE or e-waste from households, businesses,
and public institutions. They sell it to be repaired,
refurbished, or to be dismantled. Dismantlers
SECOND-HAND MARKET manually break the equipment down into usable
marketable components and materials. Recyclers
burn, leach, and melt e-waste to convert it into
secondary raw materials. This “backyard recycling”
causes severe
damage to the environment and human
health.
BACKYARD
RECYCLING
DISMANTLING
DOOR-TO-DOOR BUYERS

Chapter 5
Worldwide Harmonisation by the
Global E-waste Statistics Partnership
42
43
Building on the partnership on Measuring ICT for This initiative aims to collect data from countries and and regional progress by organizing workshops on
development, in 2017, the United Nations University build a global e-waste database to track e-waste statistics in various countries. So far,
– SCYCLE programme (UNU-SCYLE), the developments over time. The partnership has regional capacity-building workshops have been
International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), and achieved this result by publishing the second edition conducted in East Africa, Latin America, Eastern
the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) of the Global E-waste Monitor – 2017 and building a Europe, and the Arabian States. More than 360
joined forces to create the Global E-waste Statistics website www.globalewaste.org to publicly visualize people from 60 countries have been trained on the
Partnership in close collaboration with the United the most relevant e-waste indicators. internationally adopted methodology. Between 2017
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to create and 2019, approximately nine countries (apart from
the Global E-waste Statistics Partnership as a way Since 2017, the Global E-waste Statistics Partnership EU countries) have started compiling e-waste
of addressing the challenges associated with has made substantial progress by organizing national statistics on the adoption of the harmonised
managing e-waste. measurement framework, and most of them have
obtained satisfactory results.
Regions that participated in e-waste statistics workshops

Between 2017 and 2020
people have been trained on e-waste

361
statistics
CIS
Eastern region
Europe
countries participated in e-waste

60 statistics workshops Arab states
East
countries (apart from EU countries) Africa
9 Latin
America
have started compiling national
e-waste statistics
44 Chapter 5. Worldwide Harmonisation by the Global E-waste Statistics Partnership

Mulindwa Muminu Matovu
EEE Placed on the Market (in kt) in Uganda
S enior
40
S tatistician,
Environment and 35
Forestry S tatistics 30
25
B ureau of Statistics, Uganda 20
Uganda 15
10
5
0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
“The workshop on e-waste statistics, held in November 2017 in Arusha, Tanzania, was
very useful and provided me with a basic knowledge of e-waste statistics, which
enabled me to initiate Ugandan statistics on e-waste. Having learned that the key
variable for the POM was exports and imports of electronics, I started off with an
inquiry from the Ugandan trade statistics section for provision of the data on EEE. I E-waste generated (in kt) in Uganda
was then able to covert the national POM data in the international classification
system, thanks to the correlation tables provided by SCYCLE. Finally, I was able to
enter the data into the excel tool and calculate the e-waste generated in Uganda over 20
a lengthy time period. This is an important achievement as country-specific e-waste 15
statistics are useful both for quantifying the problem of e-waste in Uganda and for 10
policy-making. I wish to thank the SCYCLE team for the invaluable support”. 5
0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Chapter 5. Worldwide Harmonisation by the Global E-waste Statistics Partnership 45

Enas M ohammad Al-Arabyat
E-waste generated from households in Jordan in
2018 (in tons) Head As sistance
of Environment
S tatistics Division
Department of
Jordan
Statistics, Jordan
S udki S ameer Hamdan

Temperature
Scre e n s and
e xc hange
monitors
“With SCYCLE’s support, the team Expert
equipment
and Environment Statistics Division Environmental
carried out a workshop in October and Energy
160 823 S tatistics
2018 to develop the expertise in the
field of electronic waste statistics. The
Department of
workshop was a good opportunity to
Statistics, Jordan
identify the current available data that
can be used to produce e-waste
statistics and identify the data gaps.
The tools that were provided helped us
to produce of e-waste generated in the country. As a result of the capacity-building
estimations
Large exercise, some data-producing institutions have adopted clear and specific methods
Lamps
equipm ent and classifications (such as DOS, General Customs Department, Ministry of Industry
and Trade). Additionally,the Environment Statistics Division carried out the survey of
657 11225 electronic and electrical waste in the domestic sector by using the international e-
waste classification (Hamdan 2019). This exercise is the first of its kind in the region
and represents a great success for the Jordan Department of Statistics. The data
modelled using the e-waste statistics tools provided by SCYCLE have been used to
match the results obtained from the surveys.
US B The Department of Statistics in Jordan plans to prepare an e-waste inventory report in

the near future, and further refine the calculations for EEE POM and e-waste, and
Small IT and
develop other monitoring methods.
Small equipment telecommunic ation
equipment
Our warm thanks go to the SCYCLE team and the Global E-waste Statistics
Partnership for their support and assistance in developing such an internationally
563 20
harmonised e-waste classification, databases, and methodological framework. The
results obtained in Jordan will be useful for informing policy makers and enhancing
decisions”.

Š evala Korajčević
EEE Placed on the Market (in kt) in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Head of Transport,
Environment,
35
Energy and
Regional S tatis- 30
Bosnia and
tics Department Herzogovina 25
20
Agency of Statistics, 15
B osnia and 10
Herzegovina
5
0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
“Thanks to the cooperation with the SCYCLE programme from the United Nations
University/Vice-Rectorate in Europe, Bosnia and Herzegovina adapted the e-waste
generated tool for the calculation of e-waste in the country. The national bureau
of statistics successfully calculated national EEE POM data in accordance with the
requirements of Directive 2012/19/EU of the European Parliament and the Council of E-waste generated (in kg per capita)
4th of July 2012 on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). Additionally, in Bosnia and Herzegovina
the total e-waste generated both in terms of total weight and per capita was
calculated. Results show that the average annual e-waste per capita is on the rise”.
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Ruth Minja
EEE Placed on the Market (in kt) in Tanzania
Ag. Director for
Population Census
50 and S ocial
45 S tatistics
40
35 Tanzania
30
25
National B ureau of
20
Statistics, Tanzania
15
10
5
0 “Before 2018, Tanzania, like many other developing countries, had challenges with
2014 2015 2016 2017 respect to available and reliable e-waste data for tracking the progress to the
implementation of national, regional, and global development frameworks. In
addressing e-waste data gaps, the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) of Tanzania
has taken a lead role in a special programme to enhance availability of such data in
E-waste generated per category in 2017 (in kt) in Tanzania the country. The outcome of this programme is the publication of the National E-
Waste Statistics Report, 2019 (NEWSR). The NEWSR is the first-ever analytical report
on e-waste in Tanzania and presents a fresh statistical outlook of the problem of e-
waste in Tanzania. The NEWSR features analysis of data for EEE POM, mobile phone
0.7
service subscriptions, and possession of some EEE from recent household surveys.
1.5 Temperature
1.9 exchange equipm ent
The production of NEWSR is a result of institutional collaborations, with NBS taking
Screens and monitors the lead role. In this collaboration, the SCYCLE team provided capacity-building and
tools for data analysis. NEWSR wishes to thank the SCYCLE team for their technical
4.8
Lamps support and all other institutions that financially supported this effort: Government of
Tanzania, Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ GmbH),
Large equipm ent United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), and the Global e-waste Statistics
Partnership”.
Small
equipm ent
Small IT and telecommuni-
7.9
cation equipment
19.0

Chapter 6
E-waste Legislation and
Transboundary Movement
50
51
Governments around the world are developing national e-waste policies and However, even in some countries where legally binding policies are enacted,
legislation to deal with the growth of end-of-life electrical and electronic products. enforcement is a key issue. In the European Union, for example, the range of collected
Such a policies lay out plans or courses of action and indicate, in a non-binding e-waste is vis- à-vis to what has been put on market, and ranges from 12% in Malta to
manner, what can be achieved by a society, institution, or company. Legislations are 26% in Cyprus to 56% in Sweden to 58% in both Poland and Austria to 61% in
enacted at the national or municipal level and enforced by regulators, and a regulation Hungary. Only Estonia (82%) and Bulgaria (79%) are above the legally binding 65%
indicates the way in which a legislation is enforced by regulators. target, jointly set in the European Union (SCYCLE data, unpublished).
Having the best policy or regulatory framework in the world means nothing unless it is
setting reachable targets and effectively enforced. This is, unfortunately too often not
the case, while at the same time, the overarching e-waste management system in
2014 2017 2019 many countries is not appropriately financed – if it is financed at all.
Since the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, policy makers in industrialized and emerging
44% 66% 71% economies have continued focusing much of their policy and legislative efforts on
developing financing and awareness schemes that ensure better participation of both
the private sector and individual consumers. The objective here is to ensure higher
collection and recycling rates and to generate the revenue necessary to meet
population covered by population covered by population covered by
legislation, policy, or legislation, policy, or legislation, policy, or treatment costs. Most legislative instruments concentrate on resource recovery
regulation regulation regulation through recycling and countermeasures against environmental pollution and human
health impacts at the end- of-life of products. The reduction of e-waste volumes and
substantive repair and reuse of EEE has been limited so far.
Since the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, more and more e-waste-related policies,
legislations, and resulting regulations are also considering more upscale design
and production aspects – no longer focusing on the purely curative waste
management aspects. This is in line with the globally increasing policy efforts towards
a Circular Economy. Also, in response to the recently forecasted scenarios for e-waste
61 countries 67 countries 78 countries
increases in 2050 and 2100 (Parajuly et al. 2019), which could result in more than a
covered by legislation, covered by legislation, covered by legislation,
policy, and regulation policy, and regulation policy, and regulation doubling of the annual e-waste generation in the next 30 years, a reconsideration of
the present approaches, or at least a substantial enforcement of the present
legislations and regulations, is required.
As of October 2019, 78 countries have either a policy, legislation, or regulation governing

e-waste in place. With these, 71% of the world’s population is currently covered. This is
an increase by 5% from 66% in 2017. But the coverage rate can be misleading, as it
gives the impression that there is little left to do in terms of regulating the management
of e-waste: in many countries, policies are non-legally binding strategies, but only
programmatic ones. Across Africa and Asia, for example, there are 19 countries with
legally binding legislation on e-waste, 5 countries with an e-waste policy but non-legally
binding legislation, and 31 countries with policy in development (GSMA 2020).
52 Chapter 6. E-waste Legislation and Transboundary Movement

The Solving the E-waste Problem (StEP) initiative, involving stakeholders from But not all stakeholders may be willing to take their parts and voluntarily begin
industry, academia, governments, NGOs, and international organizations, has collecting and recycling e-waste. And though most legislations are, thus far, centred
established the following set of guiding principles to develop e-waste management around an extended producer responsibility (EPR), it is no longer a debated matter
systems and legislation: that only a harmonised multi-stakeholder approach will help to steer shifts towards
sustainable solutions. Therefore, the definition, role, and obligations of each
stakeholder need to be clearly laid out in the regulations. In more detail, an e-waste
Establish a clear legal framework for e- legislation or regulation must include:
waste collection and recycling.
√ definitions for the role of municipalities and the government.
Introduce extended producer responsibility to ensure √ a clear definition of who is responsible for organizing the collection and recycling.
producers finance the collection and recycling of e-waste. √ a clear definition of who is responsible for financing the e-waste collection and
recycling.
Enforce legislation for all stakeholders, and strengthen monitoring √ national alignment on definitions of e-waste.
and compliance mechanisms across the country to ensure a level √ a permitting and licensing structure for e-waste collectors and recyclers.
playing field. √ a clear definition of “producer”, if the system is based on the so-called “Extended
Producer Responsibility” (EPR) principle. Without this, no producer will feel obliged
Create favourable investment conditions for experienced recyclers to comply, and the fair enforcement of legal provisions across industry will be
to bring the required technical expertise to the country. more difficult.
√ the allocation of collection and recycling obligations among producers.
Create a licensing system or encourage certification via √ a description of how companies shall register as “producers”.
international standards for collection and recycling. √ documentation of their compliance status and a clear description of the goals and
targets of the legislation.
If an informal collection system exists, use it to collect e-waste,
and ensure e-waste is sent to licensed recyclers through
incentives.
When no local end-processing facilities exist for an e-waste

fraction, ensure good and easy access to internationally licensed
treatment facilities.
Ensure that costs to run the system are transparent, and

stimulate competition in the collection and recycling system to
drive cost effectiveness.
Ensure that all stakeholders involved in e-waste collection and

recycling are aware of the potential impacts on the environment
and human health as well as possible approaches to the
environmentally sound treatment of e-waste.
Create awareness on the environmental benefits of recycling

among consumers. (Magalini et al. 2016)
Chapter 6. E-waste Legislation and Transboundary Movement 53

McCann and Wittmann (2015) worked out that, based on the differences in the
operational and financial structures of systems in place around the world, it is possible
to define at least three generic financing models, or stakeholder groups, that have About the Basel Convention
potential, individual, or shared responsibility for end-of-life EEE:
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of
(i) Entire society: the first model looks to set upfront fees to be paid by the Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal is a multilateral treaty aimed at
producer when the product is placed on the market. suppressing environmentally and socially detrimental hazardous waste
Consumers:
(ii) secondly, there is the model that makes the person or entity responsible trading patterns. The convention was opened for signature in 1989 and
for disposing the e-waste financially liable for the cost of the collection and made effective in 1992 and, to date, has been signed by 187 countries. (6) E-
recycling. waste, due to its constitution, often contains hazardous elements.
Producers:
(iii) the third type uses a market share approach to financing, seeking to Therefore, the Convention affirms that in order to protect human health
recoup all the actual operational costs of running the collection system. and the environment, hazardous waste should not be traded freely like
ordinary commercial goods, and thus it establishes a written notification
Also, since the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, the EPR principle is usually taken into and approval process for all cross-border movements of hazardous wastes.
account when developing new legislations and policies around the globe. With this, But the Basel Convention’s regulatory exemption on equipment destined
the producers shall also take responsibility over the post-consumer stage of a for reuse is entirely compatible with its prime environmental objective of
product’s lifecycle. Therefore, EPR policies were expected to incentivize product preventing waste generation, as reuse extends the life cycle of EEE and
design that encourages reuse and recycling. But it is becoming more and more therefore mitigates the generation of hazardous waste. By prolonging the
obvious that most producers are unwilling and likely unable to take up their functionality of electronics, reuse promotes natural resource conservation
responsibility without a concerted effort with other key stakeholders, such as and at least temporarily diverts the need for recycling or disposal. However,
governments, municipalities, retailers, collectors, recyclers, and consumers. The the distinction of whether something is waste or not, and therefore
staggering collection against what is put of market gives reason for this assessment. intended for reuse, is a longstanding discussion under the Basel Convention.
Moreover, producers also show increasingly less interest in e-waste initiatives such as Although the most recent Conference-of-Parties (COP14) adopted, on an
StEP or the Basel Convention’s PACE and, instead, are interested in being associated interim basis, the revised technical guidelines on transboundary movements
with circular economy approaches. of electrical and electronic waste and used electrical and electronic
equipment, a final consensus has still not been reached concerning the
definition of waste. National reporting, which is carried out voluntarily by
Parties to the Convention, currently stands at less than 50% of signatories.
There are two sound policy decisions that can be made unilaterally with
regard to ensuring better and more effective enforcement, which is the
major stumbling block for all legislation and policies in place. First, more
resources should be provided to customs and harbour officials to help
them in combatting the illegal trade in e-waste. Given all the other priorities
that are often rightly deemed more critical for authorities to focus on –
such as the arms trade, drug shipments, and human trafficking – it is of
little wonder that e-waste is not in the priority list, despite of recent
development towards a circular economy. Secondly, penalties for trying to
export e-waste illegally should be increased so that they provide some sort
of meaningful deterrent, or at least a substantial inconvenience, to those
trying to break the law.
54 Chapter 6. E-waste Legislation and Transboundary Movement

Parties, discrepancies in reporting, and data inaccuracies (Forti, Baldé, and Kuehr
2018). Currently, international trade data do not distinguish between new and used
EEE, and, obviously illegal trade flows across countries are cumbersome to measure
directly, due to the illegal nature of the activity. An interesting update is that recently,
the Harmonised System Committee (RSC) provisionally adopted amendments to the
HS codes to provide for the identification of electrical and electronic waste in the HS
nomenclature under 8549. The amendments are likely to enter into effect on 1
January 2022 (Basel Convention 2019).
Thus far, there have been some attempts to quantify the transboundary movements of
used electronics and e-waste, using several different methods. Most credible reports
Transboundary flows of e-waste have become a major concern for both exporter and regarding transboundary flows of used EEE in the USA were conducted by Duan et al.
importer countries. Some data suggests that the majority of e-waste is shipped from (2013) under the Step umbrella. The study undertook a quantitative analysis of the
the Northern hemisphere for informal disposal in developing countries. Although the transboundary flows of used electronics between and from North American countries
exact volume of the flow of e-waste is difficult to measure – as much of it is exported and used a Mass Balance method together with a Hybrid Sales Obsolescence-Trade
illegally or under the guise of being intended for reuse or as scrap – it is widely Data Method (HSOTDM). By analysing the results, it can be concluded that
accepted that the volume is significant, but a considerable share takes other routes. approximately 8.5% of the used EEE products generated in 2010 were exported
The issue of transboundary movements of e-waste from developed to developing (Lasaridi et al. 2016). Another study presented a similar result for the year 2011: 7%
countries raises concerns both because it causes an additional environmental burden of used EEE were exported from the USA in 2011 (USITC 2013).
in the destination countries and because e-waste is likely to be managed by the
informal sector. As a consequence, the management of e-waste is carried out in an According to a study for the European Commission (BIO intelligence Service 2013),
environmentally unsound manner, which poses significant risks to health and the roughly 15% of used electrical and electronic equipment (UEEE) is exported from the
environment. However, recent trends show that, in some cases, e-waste shipments EU, mainly for reuse. It is important to note that part of this UEEE either becomes
take a regional route (e.g. from Western/Northern Europe to Eastern Europe) rather WEEE during the transport (e.g. if there is not appropriate protection of the product
than a strictly “North-South” route. On the other end, as the e-waste collection during transport) or shortly after arriving in the destination country. This share is
system make progress in developing counties, there is evidence that valuable confirmed by another study undertaken by the Countering WEEE Illegal Trade (CWIT)
components such as Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) are being shipped these days from project, which found that in the EU, 15.8 % (1.5 Mt) of the e-waste generated in 2012
the Southern hemisphere to the Northern hemisphere for recycling. This is the case in (9.5 Mt) was exported. 1.3 Mt departed the EU in undocumented exports. Since the
Ghana and Tanzania, for example. And though transboundary movements were long- main economic driver behind these shipments is reuse and repair, as opposed to the
perceived as exports from the rich to the poor, there are growing indications dumping of the e-waste, an estimated 30% of this volume is e-waste (Huisman et al.
worldwide that historically well-regarded import countries such as China are also 2015). A more recent study (Baldé et al 2020) reports that 8% of the total e-waste
increasingly exporting e-waste to Southeast Asia, Africa, and elsewhere (Lepawsky generated in the Netherlands is exported for reuse. Another study conducted in 2019
2015). Transboundary movement also appears dynamic in time, reacting to social, (Zoeteman, Krikke, and Venselaar 2010) assumed that free riders were responsible
economic, and regulatory changes. One example is the rapid shift of processing for 10-20% of the total e-waste generated being illegally exported to non-OECD
operations from China to Southeast Asian countries such as Thailand, Malaysia, and countries, and that a part was exported legally for reuse in developing countries. An
Vietnam as a consequence of the China’s import ban on waste in effect since 2018. earlier study (Geeraerts, Mutafoglu, and Illés 2016) suggested that assuming a
Currently, there are very few statistics based on hard data that are related to imports “minimum export/import scenario”, 10% of EU e-waste is exported illegally from the
and exports of waste, used electronics, and e-waste. The national reporting data by EU, while another 10% of the EU e-waste is exported legally as used EEE.
Parties (meaning country signatories) to the Basel Convention mandated under
Article 13 provides some information to analyse flows and amounts of transboundary Based on the above estimates, it can be concluded that the transboundary
movement of e-waste, but it is insufficient for a comprehensive analysis because of movements of used EEE or e-waste is in the range of 7-20 % of the e-waste
incomplete reporting by many Parties, ambiguous definitions, incorrect generated.
categorization among the
Chapter 6. E-waste Legislation and Transboundary Movement 55
Chapter 7
The Potential of E-waste in
a Circular Economy
56
57
From a material design perspective, EEE is very complex. Up to 69 elements from the On the other hand, the recycling sector is often confronted with high costs of recycling
periodic table can be found in EEE, including precious metals (e.g. gold, silver, copper, and challenges in recycling the materials. For instance, the recovery of some materials
platinum, palladium, ruthenium, rhodium, iridium, and osmium), Critical Raw Materials such as germanium and indium is challenging because of their dispersed use in
(CRM) ( 7 ) (e.g. cobalt, palladium, indium, germanium, bismuth, and antimony), and products, and the products are neither designed nor assembled with recycling
non- critical metals, such as aluminium and iron. principles having been taken into account.
Within the paradigm of a circular economy, the mine of e-waste should be considered On the other hand, base metals (e.g. gold) used in certain devices, such as
an important source of secondary raw materials. Due to issues relating to primary mobile phones and PCs, have a relatively high level of concentration: 280 grams
mining, market price fluctuations, material scarcity, availability, and access to per ton of e-waste. Methods employed to separate and recycle e-waste can be
resources, it has become necessary to improve the mining of secondary resources economically viable, especially if carried out manually, where the material losses
and reduce the pressure on virgin materials. By recycling e-waste, countries are less than 5% (Deubzer 2007). Separate collection and recycling of e-waste can
could at least mitigate their material demand in a secure and sustainable way. thus be economically viable for products containing high concentrations and
contents of precious metals. Nevertheless, the recycling rate of most CRMs is still
This report shows that, globally, only 17.4% of e-waste is documented to be formally very low and can be improved for precious metals by better collection and pre-
collected and recycled. Collection and recycling rates need to be improved worldwide. treatment of e-waste.
1 2
H He Elements found in
1.008
Hydrog e n
4.002602
H e l i um
EEE
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 E l e m e n t s quanti fied
Li B C N O F Ne in the report
Be
9.0121831 10.81 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998403163 20.1797
Be ryllium Boron C a rb on Nit rog en Ox y g e n F luorin e N e on
Precious
6.94
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
L it h iu m
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Critical
22.98976928 24.305 26.9815385 28.085 30.973761998 32.06 35.45 39.948
S od ium Magnesium A l u m i n ium S i l ic on P h os ph or us Sulfur C h lorin e A r g on
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Non-critical
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Ni Cu Zn Ge As Se Br Kr
Co Ga
39.0983 40.078 44.955908 47 .867 50.9415 51.9961 54.938044 58.6934 63.546 72.630 74.921595 78.971 79.904 83.798
P ot a s s iu m C a lc i um Sca ndium Tit a n i u m Va na dium C h r om iu m Manganese N i c ke l C oppe r G e rm a n i um Arsenic Selenium Bro m i n e Kr y pt o n
55.845 65.38
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 58.933194 45 46 47 48 69.723 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru
Iron
C oba lt
Rh Pd Ag Cd
Z in c
Ga llium
In Sn Sb Te Xe
85.4678 87.62 88.90584 91.224 92.90637 95.95 98 101.07 102.90550 106.42 107.8682 112.414 114.818 118.710 121.760 127.60 126.90447 131.293
Rub idi um St ron t ium Yt t rium Zirc on i um Niobiu m M ol y b de n um Te c h n e t iu m R ut h e n i um R h odi um Pa lla dium Silve r C a dm i u m Ind i u m Tin A n t im on y
I
Tellurium Iodine X e n on
55 56 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba 57 Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.90545196 137.327 71 178.49 180.94788 183.84 186.207 190.23 192.217 195.084 196.966569 200.592 204.38 207.2 208.98040 209 210 222
Caesium Ba ri u m Ha fn ium Ta n t a l um Tu n g s t e n Rh e n ium Os m i u m Iridiu m Pla t in u m Gold M e rc ur y Th a l li um Lead Bismuth P olon iu m A s t a t in e Ra don
87 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
89 Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
Fr Ra
223 226 103 267 268 269 27 0 269 278 281 281 285 286 289 289 293
294
F ra n c i um Ra d i u m R ut h e rfordium D ubn ium S e a b or g iu m Boh riu m Ha ssium M e i t n e r ium D a r m s t a dt i um R oe n t g e n i um C ope rn ic i um U n un t ri um F le rovi um U n un pe n t i um L ive rm or ium U n un s e pt i um U n un oct i um
294
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide
Series La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.90547 140.116 140.90766 144.242 145 150.36 151.964 157.25 158.92535 162.500 164.93033 167.259 168.93422 173.054 174.9668
Lanth anum C e ri um Pra seodymium Neodymium P rom e t h i um Sa ma rium Europium Ga dolin ium Terbium D y s pros i um H olm i um Erbium Th ul i um Y t t e rb i um L ut e t ium
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Actinide
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
227 232.0377 231.03588 238.02891 237 244 243 247 247 251 252 2 57 258 259 266
Series Actinium Th ori um P rot a c t in iu m U r a n i um N e p t un i um P lut on i um Americium C uri um B e rke li um C a liforn ium E in s t e i n i um Fermium M e n de le vi um N ob e li um La wrencium
Source: Deubzer et al.
20 19
58 Chapter 7. The Potential of E-waste in a Circular Economy

Overall, the value of selected raw materials (8) the recycling technologies currently available. approximately 39 Mt. Even in an ideal scenario in
contained in e-waste in 2019 was equal to which all the iron, copper and aluminium resulting
approximately $57 billion USD (9) , corresponding to a By improving e-waste collection and recycling from e-waste (25 Mt) is recycled, the world would still
total of 25 Mt. practises worldwide, a considerable amount of require approximately 14 Mt of iron, aluminium and
Iron, aluminium, and copper represent the majority secondary raw materials – precious, critical, and copper from primary resources to manufacture new
of the total weight of raw waste materials that non-critical – could be made readily available to re- electronics (11.6 Mt, 1.4 Mt, and 0.8 Mt, respectively).
can be found in e-waste in 2019. These quantities enter the manufacturing process while reducing the (10)
This indicates that the gap between the
and the material value could be recovered only in continuous extraction of new materials. secondary iron, aluminium and copper found in e-
an ideal scenario in which all e-waste generated waste and their demand for the production of
globally is recycled and the recycling of all selected The demand of iron, aluminium, and copper for new EEE is quite large. This is a consequence of
raw materials is economically viable or even feasible the production of new electronics in 2019 was the continuous growth of sales of EEE.
with
in
vi rg i al
m an uf a c turi n g f er
t o at
25 Mt 39 Mt m
ra M
w
14
estimated amount of the estimated demand
analysed raw materials 10 0 %re c y c l i n g of raw materials for
$57 billion USD in e-waste in 2019 e al EEE the production of
id new electronics
potential value of the analysed
raw materials in e-waste in 2019
kt mill.USD kt mill.USD
Ag 1.2 579 In 0.2
17
Al 3046 6062 Ir 0.001 53.6 Mt
5
7.3 kg per capita
Au 0.2 9481 Os 0.002
Pt 0.01
Gl o
108 Rh
d
Bi 0.1 1.3 Ru
Pd 0.0003
0.1 al
te
0.01
b
3532 Sb 76 E-
Co 13 1036 w a s t e Ge n ra
e
71
cy
re
Cu 1808 10960
320
Fe 20466cl 24645
3
Ge 0.01
e 0.4 644
e
us
Chapter 7. The Potential of E-waste in a Circular Economy 59

With the current documented formal collection and recycling rate of 17.4%, a potential computers, printed wiring boards, connectors, relays, wires, and cables (McPherson,
raw material value of $10 billion USD can be recovered from e-waste, and 4 Mt of Thorpe, and Blake 2004 & Herat 2008). The recycling of plastic containing BFR
secondary raw materials would become available for recycling. Focusing only on iron, represents a major challenge for e-waste recycling because of the costs related to the
aluminium, and copper and comparing emissions resulting from their use as virgin raw separation of plastic containing PBDEs and PBBs from other plastic. Recycled plastic
materials or secondary raw materials, their recycling has helped save up to 15 Mt of with PBDE and PBB content higher than 0.1% cannot be used for manufacturing of any
CO 2 equivalent emissions in 2019 (see Annex 2 for details on the methodology). products, including EEEs. In most cases, compliant recyclers incinereate plastic
containing PBDEs and PBBs under controlled conditions to avoid the release of dioxins
EEE also contains hazardous substances, usually heavy metalssuch as mercury, and furans. On the other end, if incineration is not carried out in an environmentally
cadmium, or lead and chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), sound manner, those substances are likely to pose risks to health or the environment.
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), and flame retardants. Approximately 71 kt of plastic The use of PBDEs and PBBs have been banned in Europe (European Parliament 2011).
containing BFR (Brominated Flame Retardants) arise from the unaccounted flows of Some of these contaminants have been banned in Europe, as risk assessment studies
e-waste generated in 2019 (see Annex 2 for details on the methodology). In particular, have shown that they are persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic, and can be responsible
BFR are used in appliances to reduce the product's flammability, appearing, for for kidney damage, several skin disorders, and nervous and immune systems and
example, in outer casings of effects to the nervous and immune systems.
0.05 kt $10 billion USD

e Ge n e rat
amount of mercury from unaccounted potential value that
as t
flows of e-waste could be recovered
w e d
71 kt
amount of Brominated Flame Retardants E- 4 Mt
estimated amount of raw materials
in
(BFR) from unaccounted flows of e-waste that could be available for recycling
al
2 01
Gl o b
CO2
+ 98 Mt of CO2 equivalents CO2
-15 Mt of CO2 equivalents
potentially released from the their reuse as secondary products
9
53.6 Mt
inferior recycling of undocumented has helped save up to 15 Mt of
82
fridges and air-conditioners CO2 equivalents emissions

is n
.6 % d o c
17. 4 %
doc
of
ot
c ol l um
e ct
e- m
e d/ en
te
w
st pr
7.3 kg per capita op d:
a
u
en e fl er
100
te o w ly
d s
re
cy
80
cl e
d
Mt CO2 equivalents
60
40
20
0 aluminium iron
2011
2001
2010
2012
2013
2015
2016
2018
2019
2005
2014
2017
2000
2002
2003
2006
2007
2008
2009
2004
copper
60 Chapter 7. The Potential of E-waste in a Circular Economy

Mercury is used in fluorescent light sources, e.g. in background lights of older flat The presence of hazardous substances and scarce or valuable materials in e-waste
panel displays and TVs, in compact fluorescent lamps (“energy-saving lamps”), makes it necessary to recycle and treat the e-waste in an environmentally sound
fluorescent lamps, in measure and control equipment, and in old switches. (Baldé manner; doing so helps avoid the release of such substances into the environment
et al. 2018). If these appliances are abandoned in open dumpsites as opposed to and the losses of ecologically and economically valuable materials. Although several
being properly recycled, mercury can enter the food chain and accumulate in living pieces of legislation have banned the use of some substances and are pushing for
organisms while bringing damage to the central nervous system, thyroid, kidneys, them to be replaced by safer materials, appliances that were produced in the past
lungs, immune system, etc (Baldé et al. 2018). A total of 50 t of mercury can be and still contain those substances must, once discarded, be treated adequately in
found in the unaccounted flows of e-waste generated in 2019 worldwide. order to contain the risks that they can pose to the environment and health. In
addition, new equipment may also still contain smaller amounts of those banned
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are present in substances, due to the fact that they technically cannot yet be substituted or
refrigerant circuits and insulating foams of older generations of cooling and freezing eliminated.
equipment, such as refrigerators, freezers, and air-conditioning systems. These Itcanbeassumedthatatleastmost e-wastecollection, treatment,
molecules have a long lfespan in the atmosphere. They react with ozone molecules anddisposalintheformal sectorislegallycompliant, thustakingcareoftheenvironmental,
(O3), generating molecular oxygen that thins the stratospheric ozone layer (ozone health, andsafetyaspects. This assumption may not be applicable for treatment and
hole). This process leads to an increment of the UV radiation that can pass the disposal outside the formal sector. Non-
stratosphere, likely causing skin cancers, eye-related diseases, and a weakening of compliantrecyclingprovestobeacheaperoptionthanthecompliantrecycling. A recent
the immune system. The Montreal Protocol (adopted in 1987) regulates the study by the European Electronics Recyclers Association (EERA) and the United
production and consumption of manmade chemicals known as ozone-depleting Nations University (Magalini and Huisman 2018) shows that a European compliant
substances, which includes the phasing out of CFCs and HCFCs. These gases have recycler incurs substantially higher costs than a non-compliant recycler. In detail, the
high global warming potential (GWP). If EEE containing these gases is not managed in compliant recyclers based in Europe normally incur technical costs such as costs
an environmentally sound manner, refrigerants could be emitted into the atmosphere. related to treatment, de-pollution, disposal of hazardous fractions, and disposal of
Estimations show that a total of 98 Mt of CO 2 equivalents(11) were released from the non-hazardous fractions, as well as the proof of legal compliance, quality, and service
inferior recycling of undocumented fridges and air conditioners (40% in Europe and level.
Cooling and Large household Small household
82.6% in the rest of the world). Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the freezing equipment equipment equipment
overtook the
improperly emissions
managed from fridges
refrigerants in 2013.
estimated In 2019,
to be found of
in the total CO 2 equivalents
air conditioners
estimated to be released into the atmosphere, 73% were from air
conditioners and 27%
were from fridges. This is explained by the fact that refrigerants with high global
warming potential were used before 1994 (e.g. R-11 and R-12) and until 2017 (R-134a
and R-22). Since then, the refrigerants have been substituted by others with a
substantially lower GWP (e.g. R-152a and R-124yf). The decrease of CO 2 equivalent
emissions, reflecting the recent obligations for replacing the refrigerants, will be
observed only in the next decades, when the new products placed on the market will
become waste (see Annex 2 for details on the methodology).
$220 USD $130 USD $290 USD
per ton per ton per ton
Source: M agalini and Huisman 20 18
The study concludes that the potential cost reductions that can be realised by non-
compliant treatment exceed the normal economic margins of legitimate recyclers,
applying best available technology and ensuring full compliance, which leads to unfair
competition.
Chapter 7. The Potential of E-waste in a Circular Economy 61

Chapter 8
E-waste Impact on the Health
of Children and Workers
62
63
Children live, work, and play in informal e-waste Adverse health effects recently found to be associated with e-waste
recycling sites. Adults and children can be exposed Since the publication of the previous e-waste monitor in 2017, the number of studies on the adverse
by inhaling toxic fumes and particulate matter, health effects from e-waste have increased. These studies have continued to highlight the dangers to
through skin contact with corrosive agents and human health from exposure to well-studied toxins, such as lead. Recently, research has found that
chemicals, and by ingesting contaminated food and unregulated e-waste recycling is associated with increasing numbers of adverse health effects. These
water. Children are also at risk from additional include adverse birth outcomes (Zhang Y et al. 2018), altered neurodevelopment (Huo X et al. 2019b),
routes of exposure. Some hazardous chemicals can adverse learning outcomes (Soetrisno et al. 2020), DNA damage (Alabi OA et al. 2012.), adverse
be passed from mothers to children during cardiovascular effects (Cong X et al. 2018), adverse respiratory effects (Amoabeng Nti AA et al. 2020),
pregnancy and breast- feeding. Young children adverse effects on the immune system (Huo X et al. 2019b), skin diseases (Decharat S et al. 2019;
playing outside or in nature frequently put their Seith et al. 2019), hearing loss (Xu L et al. 2020), and cancer (Davis JM et al. 2019).
hands, objects, and soil in their mouths, increasing
the risk of exposure. Fetuses, infants, children, and
adolescents are particularly vulnerable to damage
from exposure to toxicants in e-waste because of Sources of health or environmental impact caused by informal e-waste recycling
their physiology, behaviour, and additional routes of
exposure (Landrigan & Goldman 2011; Pronczuk de
Garbino 2004).
Occupational exposure
- Inhaling fumes from burning

Community exposure
wires and cooking circuit boards
- Exposure through food, water, air - Pregnant women working as
- Home based workshops recyclers – exposure of fetuses
Environmental contamination
- Dumping acid used to remove gold into rivers
- L ea c hing of substances from landfills or stored electronics Children
- Particulate matter, dioxins, furans from dismantling
electronics - Ingesting contaminated dust on surfaces
- Contaminants entering the water system and food system - Playing with dismantled electronics
through livestock, fish, and crops - Children and adolescents working in
collection, dismantling, and recycling
64 Chapter 8. E-waste Impact on the Health of Children and Workers

Associations between exposure to informal e-waste recycling
and the health of infants and children Because of their unique vulnerability and
susceptibility to environmental toxicants, infants and
children have been a significant focus of health
Adverse birth outcomes. (12) Increased or decreased growth.(13) Altered neurodevelopment, effects studies.
adverse learning, and behavioural
Since the publication of the previous e-waste monitor
outcomes. (14) (15)
in 2017, research on unregulated e-waste recycling
and its associations with adverse health outcomes
Effects on the immune Effects on lung function.(17) (18) Multiple studies have investigated the
system. (16) impact of e-waste exposure on has expanded. These studies have continued to
thyroid function of children but have highlight the dangers to human health from
reported inconsistent results.(19) exposure to well- studied toxins, such as lead. The
following section highlights the most recent findings
between e-waste recycling and human health
outcomes.
Studies have reported associations between
exposure to informal e-waste recycling and adverse
A small number of studies have birth outcomes (stillbirth, premature birth, lower
suggested the effects to health shown gestational age, lower birth weight and length, and
below, which may be associated with lower APGAR scores), increased or decreased
exposure to informal e-waste
growth, altered neurodevelopment, adverse learning
management.
and behavioral outcomes, immune system function,
and lung function. Multiple studies have investigated
the impact of e-waste exposure on thyroid function
in children but have reported inconsistent results.
A small number of studies have also suggested that
DNA damage, changes in gene expression,
cardiovascular regulatory changes, rapid onset of
Olfactory memory (20)
blood coagulation, hearing loss, and olfactory
memory may be associated with exposure to
DNA damage(21) and changes Hearing loss(24) informal e-waste management.
in gene expression(22) (23)
Rapid onset of
blood coagulation(25)
Cardiovascular regulatory changes (26)
Chapter 8. E-waste Impact on the Health of Children and Workers 65

Associations between exposure to informal e-waste recycling
and the health of workers The lack of workplace health and safety regulations
leads to an increased risk of injuries for workers in
informal e-waste dismantling and recycling.
The lack of workplace health and safety regulations E-waste workers have also reported stress,
leads to an increased risk of injuries for workers in headaches, shortness of breath, chest E-waste workers have also reported stress,
informal e-waste dismantling and recycling.(27) (28) pain, weakness, and dizziness.(29) (30)
headaches, shortness of breath, chest pain,
weakness, and dizziness. Among adults involved in
informal e-waste management or living in e-waste
As well as communities, DNA damage has been associated
with exposure to chemicals in e-waste. A small
number of studies have also reported effects on
liver function, fasting blood glucose levels, male
reproductive and genital disorders, and effects on
sperm quality from exposure to informal e-waste
recycling. There has been a large increase in
research into the health impacts of e-waste recycling
over the last decade. It is difficult to assess whether
exposure to e-waste as a whole causes specific
health outcomes because of studies' small
populations, the variety of chemical exposures
DNA damage(31) (32) measured, the variety of outcomes measured, and
the lack of prospective long- term studies. Yet the
Fasting blood glucose
body of research suggests there is a significant risk
levels(33) Effects on liver of harm, especially to children who are still growing
function(34)
and developing. Individual chemicals in e-waste such
Male reproductive and genital disorders, as lead, mercury, cadmium, chromium, PCBs,
as well as effects on sperm quality(35) (36) PBDEs, and PAHs are known to have serious
impacts on nearly every organ system (Grant et al.
2013).
66 Chapter 8. E-waste Impact on the Health of Children and Workers

Availability of health statistics Health effects
In addition to reliable statistics on e-waste collection, processing, and conditions of Although there is a growing amount of information about the health effects of e-waste
work, harmonised data on the number of people exposed, exposure to hazardous exposure, there is limited data available about the number of people suffering from
toxicants, and health effects are critical to understanding the impact of e-waste the effects. Academic studies of exposure and health effects have primarily been small
management. Harmonised statistics are vital for monitoring health impacts, informing studies of 50 to 450 participants (Grant K et al. 2013; Song Q & Li J 2015; Zeng X et
decision-makers of the scope of the problem, and evaluating interventions. al. 2019b; Zeng Z et al. 2018a). Some of these studies have reported contamination
of control groups, suggesting the widespread transport of contaminants (Sepúlveda
Exposure et al. 2010; Song Q & Li J 2015). No large-scale longitudinal studies have been
Limited data are available on the number of people exposed to e-waste. Only rough published. There are significant challenges to collecting e-waste-related health
estimates are available of the number of people involved in informal e-waste statistics, such as the large number of potential health outcomes, the challenges of
management internationally and in impacted countries (EMG 2019; ILO, 2019; Perkins studying chemical mixtures, the lack of confirmed exposure-outcome relationships,
DN 2014; Prakash et al 2010; Xing GH et al. 2009). It is often unclear what methods and the long latency periods of some diseases. Internationally harmonised indicators
have been used to produce these estimates. They often do not take into account can assist in measuring the number of people at risk of e-waste-related health effects
individuals living in communities but not involved in informal recycling, children, or and with monitoring trends over time.
those exposed to pollutants through environmental contamination.
Large populations in e-waste recycling hotspots may be at risk. But just because a
country doesn’t have a concentrated neighbourhood of e-waste recycling activity
doesn’t mean it has no e-waste problem. E-waste is part of a larger waste context
and is often collected door-to door or sent to landfills as part of general waste.
Waste-pickers, who are among the poorest and most vulnerable, may be exposed in
communities around the world (Gutberlet J & Uddin SMN 2017). In Latin America, e-
waste is often recycled in small shops across cities, instead of being concentrated in
one area (ITU et al. 2016a).
A growing number of studies have measured the daily intake and body burden of
single e-waste pollutants, but they have been limited to small numbers of participants
(Song & Li 2014). Long-term monitoring of occupational exposure, burdens on the
body, environmental levels, and health is needed to quantify the impact of e-waste
(Heacock et al. 2018). Experts have recommended that exposure and environmental
monitoring include metals, small particulate matter (PM2.5), persistant organic
pollutants (POPs), and PAHs (Heacock et al. 2018). Large biomonitoring initiatives are
being developed to monitor exposure to chemical hazards (Prüss-Ustün A et al. 2011)
and may be a good model for e-waste.
Chapter 8. E-waste Impact on the Health of Children and Workers 67

Chapter 9
Regional E-Waste
Key Statistics
68
69
Legislation
E-waste status in Africa in 2019 In past years, there have been some improvements in the legal, institutional, and
infrastructural framework for achieving sound management of e-waste in some
countries. In Ghana, Technical Guidelines on Environmentally Sound E-Waste
2.9 Mt | 2.5 kg per capita $3.2 Billion Management for Collectors, Collection Centers, Transporters, Treatment Facilities,
e-waste generated value of raw and Final Disposal have been developed and are being enforced. In Nigeria, the EPR
materials in e-waste
took off with formation of the E-waste Producer Responsibility Organisation of Nigeria
0.9% | 0.03 Mt
e-waste documented to be
9.4 Mt CO2 equivalents (EPRON), a non-profit organization set up by electrical and electronic producers in
potential release of GHG emissions from undocu-
collected and properly recycled
mented wasted fridges and air conditioners Nigeria. EPRON is the first Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO) for electronic
13 countries
waste in Nigeria and was founded in March 2018 with such stakeholders as HP, Dell,
have a national e-waste legisla- 0.01 kt Phillips, Microsoft, and Deloitte contributing towards its establishment in Nigeria. In
tion/policy or regulation in place a mount of mercur y from undocumented fl ows of e-waste
East Africa, there are also significant continuing developments, with Rwanda adopting
5.6 kt e-waste regulation and other countries looking at adopting future regulations.
1152 49 a mount of B F R from undocumented fl ows of e-waste
population (millions) countries analysed
Nevertheless, specific e-waste legislation on management of e-waste is still lacking in
most African countries. Few countries have e-waste legislation published in Africa (e.g.
Countries with the hi g he s t e -wa s te Egypt, Ghana, Madagascar, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa, Cameroon, Côte D'Ivoire).
generation per sub-region However, enforcing the legislation is very challenging. Some countries, such as
Eastern Africa
Rwanda, have recently passed regulations governing e-waste management. Uganda
implemented an Electronic Waste Management Policy in 2012. In the East Africa
0.3 Mt | 0.8 kg per capita 1.3% | 0.004 Mt
383 Ethiopia 55.2 kt
community, Tanzania, Rwanda, Uganda, Burundi, Kenya, and South Sudan have
Kenya 51.3 kt adopted a regional e-waste strategy to achieve a sustainable e-waste management
Tanzania 50.2 kt
system (EACO 2017). The strategy prioritizes a) strengthening the policy, legal, and
Middle Africa regulatory framework for sustainable resourcing of e-waste management, b) putting
0.2 Mt | 2.5 kg per capita 0.03% | 0.0001 Mt in place the requisite e-waste management infrastructure, c) establishing
80 Angola
Cameroon 26.4 kt
125.1 kt mechanisms for comprehensive and sustainable mobilization for e-waste
Congo 18.3 kt management resources, d) strengthening e-waste coordination structures at regional
Northern Africa and national levels, and e) promoting research and innovation in e-waste
1.3 Mt | 5.4 kg per capita 0% | 0 Mt management.
240 Egypt E-waste management system
585.8 kt E-waste management in Africa is dominated by thriving informal sector collectors
Algeria 308.6 kt
Morocco 164.5 kt and recyclers in most countries; neither organized take-back systems nor license
provisions for sorting and dismantling e-waste exist. Government control of this
Southern Africa
sector is currently very minimal and inefficient. The handling of e-waste is often
5.Mt | 6.9 kg per capita 4% |
processed in backyards by manual stripping to remove electronic boards for resale,
0.02 Mt
open burning of wires to recover few major components (e.g. copper, aluminum, and
67 South Africa 415.5 kt
Botswana 18.8 kt Legend E-waste generated iron), and the deposition of other bulk components, including CRTs, in open
Namibia 15.7 kt
0.4% | 0.002 Mt 382
E-waste generated (in Mt
and kg per capita)
1 to 1 kg per capita dumpsites. An example that has attracted international attention is the Agbogbloshie
2to 3 kg per capita
Western
Nigeria Africa
461.3 kt E-waste documented to be 3 to 6 kg per capita site in Ghana – always referred to as Africa's largest electronic waste dump. However,
Ghana
6. d'Ivoire
Côte
52.9 kt
Mt | 1.7 kg30.0
per capita
kt Population
6 to 10 kg per capita
10+ kg per capita
Agbogbloshie's reality is complex and can be described as a well-organized scrapyard
(in millions)
as opposed to an e-waste dumpsite. At Agbogbloshie, roughly 5,000 scrap workers
turn up at the dump every day to search for valuable metals contained in the waste,
such as aluminium and copper.
70 Chapter 9. Regional E-Waste Key Statistics
In such cities or countries where the e-waste is a source of revenue for many, the
“informal” e-waste collection rate is extremely high, most of the valuable materials are
recovered, and many components are reused or resold. The downside of such
intense informal activities is not of interest economically or that don't end up having
a second application are disposed of in a hazardous way.
Few countries, such as South Africa, Morocco, Egypt, Namibia, and Rwanda, have
some facilities in place for e-waste recycling, but those co-exist with the existence of a
large informal sector. Therefore, some of those recycling companies have struggled to
progress and increase the volumes processed, but interesting pilots and energies are
also mobilized through new initiatives. On the other hand, sizeable countries such as
Nigeria, Kenya, and Ghana are still very reliant on informal recycling. A study
conducted in Nigeria shows that approximately 60,000-71,000 t of used EEE were
imported annually into Nigeria through the two main ports in Lagos in 2015 and 2016.
It was found that most of the imported used e-waste was shipped from developed
countries such as Germany, UK, Belgium, USA, etc. Additionally, a basic functionality
test showed that, on average, at least 19% of devices were non-functional
(Odeyingbo, Nnorom, and Deubzer 2017).
E-waste management problems and attendant remedies are somewhat similar in

the various sub-regions of Africa. In summary, the major problems include the lack
of adequate public awareness, lack of government policy and legislation, lack of an
effective collection system and EPR system, the dominance of the recycling sector by
an uncontrolled, ill-equipped informal sector that pollutes the environment, lack of
adequate recycling facilities, and poor financing of hazardous waste management
activities.
Chapter 9. Regional E-Waste Key Statistics 71

Legislation
E-waste status in the Americas in 2019 The United States of America does not have national legislation on the management of
e-waste, but 25 states and the District of Columbia have enacted some form of
legislation. The state laws vary in their scope and impact and in whether or not they
13.1 Mt | 13.3 kg per capita $14.2 billion USD prohibit consumers from disposing electronics in landfills. In all, the laws cover 75-
e-waste generated value of raw 80% of the USA population. However, due to the differences in scope, many areas of
the country, including states covered by laws, do not have convenient collection
9.4% | 1.2 Mt
26.3 Mt CO2 equivalents opportunities. Apart from California and Utah, all states that have implemented laws
mented wasted fridges and air conditioners use an EPR approach. Canada does not have a national legislation in effect on the
10 countries management of e-waste, as the federal agency would not have this authority.
have a national e-waste legisla- 0.01 kt However, 12 provinces and territories have regulations in place with industry-managed
tion/policy or regulation in place amount of mercury from undocumented fl ows of e-waste
programmes – all but Nunavut, the least populated territory in Canada. On average,
18 kt the product scope is much wider than USA; in many Canadian provinces, the EPR
984
population (millions)
34
countries analysed
a mount of B F R from undocumented fl ows of e-waste requirements can be met by joining an approved e-waste compliance scheme.
Regulatory advances in Latin America take time, and only a few countries have
managed to establish e-waste laws. Although there has been considerable progress
Countries with the hi g he s t e - regarding the implementation of specific e-waste regulations in Latin America in the
wa s te generation per sub-region past 5-10 years, this progress is limited to a few countries, and for the rest, the road
Caribbean ahead is still very long. Apart from Mexico, Costa Rica, Colombia, and Peru – likely the
0.1 Mt | 7.8 kg per capita 1% | 0.001 Mt
leading forces in the region for environmentally sound e-waste management and
which, in 2020, are working on improving the already established systems, only Brazil
16 Jamaica
and Chile are establishing the bases from which to start with the implementation of a
18 kt
formal regulatory framework for e-waste.
Northern America Brazil recently published the “Sectoral Agreement for the Implementation of the
Reverse Logistics System for WEEE from households” for public consultation, and its
7.7 Mt | 20.9 kg per capita 15% | 1.2 Mt 367
formal signature is expected in 2020.
Central
USA America 6.918 kt
Canada 757 kt After enacting the “Framework Law on Waste Management, Extended Producer
1.5 Mt | 8.3 kg per capita
3% | 0.04 Mt 176
Responsibility, and Promotion of Recycling” in 2016, Chile is now working on the
Mexico
1.220 kt
specific e-waste regulation, which will include collection and recycling targets and set
Guatemala 75 kt the guidelines for the implementation of formal collection systems.
Costa Rica 51 kt
Seven years after implementing Decree 1512 for waste from computers, printers,
South America
0.7% | 0.03 Mt 425 and peripherals, Colombia is working on a new regulation to extend EPR to all e-waste
3.9 Mt | 9.1 kg per capita
categories and make adjustments to the integrated management system for e-
Brazil
waste, taking into account the lessons learned and the guidelines established by
2.143 kt
Argentina 465 kt WEEE Law 1672 and the National Policy for WEEE Management.
Colombia 318 kt
Legend E - wa st e generated Looking back already on five years since the implementation of its first e-waste
E-waste generated (in Mt 0 to 4 kg per capita management systems, Peru has been evaluating the experience very closely so that
and kg per capita) 4 to 7 kg per capita
E-waste documented to be 7 to 10 kg per capita it can close loopholes and make alignments with the country’s general waste
Population
management strategy. The revised regulation is expected to be published soon and
(in millions) 15+ kg per capita
will also extend the scope of e-waste categories with a mandatory collection target of
small and large household appliances and, in particular, cooling appliances.

As of 2020, Mexico is planning on reviewing the current regulation after its first five- that respond to the local conditions of the
year term and has been expanding several studies in order to redefine the region.
responsibilities of involved stakeholders, establish clearly defined categories, and set Without a doubt, the growing number of recyclers in the region is also a consequence
mandatory collection targets, thereby increasing collected and formally recycled of the growing volumes of formally collected end-of-life electronics. In countries with a
volumes. specific legal framework for e-waste and mandatory collection targets, such as
Costa Rica has finally overcome its initial challenges created by contradictory Colombia and Peru, the growth of the collected volumes has been steady and
regulations and is now focusing on improving the implementation of the current remarkable. In parallel, the range of appliances collected has also widened. The focus
regulation. Following numerous unsuccessful initiatives and law projects with a is no longer only on information and communication technologies only. Goods –
specific focus on e-waste at both the federal and provincial level, Argentina has now especially cooling appliances
changed its approach by drafting an EPR law for multiple waste categories. The law is – have been included in the scope, and there are several projects focusing primarily on
still being discussed in the Congress. energy efficiency programmes and the development of local infrastructure in order
Through its Ministerial Agreement 191, Ecuador has been enforcing the take-back of to ensure proper handling and treatment of discarded appliances and, thus, the
mobile phones from all mobile phone operators and importers, which led to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
collection and recycling of nearly 50,000 units in 2017. Driven by regulation, the importance of formal collection systems is also increasing,
Bolivia introduced the principle of EPR in its general waste management law in 2015, as is the number of individual or collective compliance schemes. Very large quantities
which applies to several waste fractions, especially batteries. Nevertheless, the law has are still handled by the informal sector or, in the best cases, stored away in basements.
never been regulated and therefore doesn’t establish any applicable collection targets. The informal sector is part of the labor structure of Latin America, but only very few
The short summary of abovementioned countries highlights a general problem countries, such as Brazil and Chile, are actively addressing their role in relation to e-
observable throughout the region: the lack of harmonisation of these regulations and waste management. Recognition, regulation, and integration of their work in this area
the general principles they are based upon. Most of them present differences in the is clearly one of the region's great challenges.
general approach (EPR vs. shared responsibility vs. public sector programmes), in
jurisdictions level (federal vs. state vs. city), the definitions of the fundamental Another challenge is the lack of contributions from the research field. There are
principles, the involved stakeholders, the allocation of roles and responsibilities, and hardly any e-waste statistics, and the few available have been overused and are worn
the applicable e-waste categories, just to name a few. out. There is a need for up-to-date information and proven methodologies that
support the definition of policies and regulations. Only by getting a grip on such
E-waste management system updating of information will it be possible to tackle the far more complex topic of
The USA undertook general measures to prevent e-waste at the federal level and, raising the awareness level and educating consumers of all sorts to help bring e-waste
so, does have a set of regulatory measures for limiting the adverse effects posed by management in Latin America to the next level.
unappropriated disposal and treatment of electronics. Certain electronics, if meeting
certain criteria, must be managed under the requirements of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Federal agencies are directed to use
electronics recyclers that are certified according to either the Responsible Recycling
(R2) or e-Stewards standards. Hundreds of electronics recycling facilities have been
independently certified to one or both of the certification programmes, whose
standard have been updated and enhanced since their inception in 2010.
Latin America still offers a very wide range of companies involved in today’s e-waste
management and disposal activities, especially when it comes to the development of
the local recyclers. On one hand, while there were only three R2-certified companies
south of Mexico just a few years ago, there are now more than 15. On the other hand,
the number of e-waste recyclers in nearly all countries has grown considerably, but
most of the newer companies are still at the very bottom of the learning curve.
Although there have been some interesting initiatives, it has not been possible yet to
establish technical standards
Legislation
E-waste status in Asia in 2019 The South Asian region has begun to recognise the importance of proper e-waste
management. India is the only country in Southern Asia with e-waste legislation,
although several other countries are considering such legislation. In India, laws to
24.9 Mt | 5.6 kg per capita $26.4 billion USD manage e-waste have been in place since 2011, mandating that only authorised
e-waste generated value of raw dismantlers and recyclers collect e-waste. A manufacturer, dealer, refurbisher, and
Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO) were brought under the ambit of the E-
11.7% | 2.9 Mt
60.8 Mt CO2 equivalents Waste (Management) Rules 2016. The National Resources Policy (still in draft at time
potential release of GHG emissions from
undocumented wasted fridges and air of publishing) also envisages a strong role for producers in the context of recovering
17 countries
conditioners secondary resources from e-waste.
have a national e-waste legisla- In Southeast Asia, some countries are more advanced. The Philippines does not have a
tion/policy or regulation in place 0.04 kt
a mount of mercur y from undocumented fl ows of
regulation specifically for e-waste management, but it does have a range of 'hazardous
e-waste
35.3 kt waste' regulations that cover e-waste as it is considered “hazardous” waste. The
4445
46
countries analysed
a mount of B F R from undocumented fl ows of e-waste Philippines has formulated the “Final Draft Guidelines on the Environmentally Sound
Management (ESM) of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)”, which
will hopefully be passed soon. Cambodia now has a specific law relating to e-waste
E-waste generated management with the 2016 Sub-decree on Electrical and Electronic Equipment Waste
0 to 2 k per capita
Management (E-waste Management). This Sub-decree covers all activities regarding
5 to 10 kg per capita disposal, storage, collection, transport, recycling and dumping of EEE waste. Myanmar
15+ kg per capita does not have regulation for e-waste, and e-waste has not specifically been categorized
as hazardous waste. However, Myanmar has recognised the importance of hazardous
Legend
waste management and is currently working towards a Master Plan and guidelines for
E-waste generated (in it.
Mt and kg per capita)
E-waste document-
China has national legislation in force that regulates the collection and treatment of
ed to be collected
and properly fourteen types of e-waste (i.e. five types, initially, and nine more were later added). The
recycled
Population
regulated fourteen types of e-waste are: televisions, refrigerators, washing machines,
(in millions)
air conditioners, personal computers, range hoods, electric water-heaters, gas water-
Countries with the hi g he s t e -wa s te heaters, fax machines, mobile phones, single-machine telephones, printers, copiers,
generation per sub-region
and monitors. Other countries in East Asia, such as Japan and the Republic of Korea,
Western Asia have advanced e-waste regulation.
2.6 Mt | 9.6 kg per capita 6% | 0.2 Mt In Japan, most EEE products are collected and recycled under the Act on Recycling of
272 Turkey Specified Kinds of Home Appliances and the Act on Promotion of Recycling of Small
Saudi Arabia
847 kt
595 kt
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment. Japan was one of the first countries globally
Iraq 278 kt Eastern Asia to implement an EPR-based system for e-waste.
Central
0.2 Mt | 7.1Asia
kg per capita 5% | 0.01 Mt 31 13.7 Mt | 8.6 kg per capita 20% | 2.7 Mt
1590
Kazakhstan 172 kt China 10.129 kt In Western and Central Asia, e-waste legislation advances are still very poor. There are
Turkmenistan 39 kt Japan 2.569 kt
Kyrgyzstan 10 kt Republic of Korea 818 kt some formalized legislation of mercury-containing lamps. However, for types of e-waste,
South-Eastern Asia Southern Asia collection, legislation, and e-waste management infrastructure is mostly absent. Some
highlights are that the Kyrgyz government is developing new legislation introducing the
3.5 Mt | 5.4 kg per capita 0% | 0 Mt 656 4.8 Mt | 2.6 kg per capita 0.9% | 0.04 Mt
1896
Indon esi a 1.618 kt India 3.230 kt EPR concept, which will also apply to e-waste. The government is currently developing
Thailand 621 kt Iran (Isl. Rep.) 790 kt
Philippine s 425 kt Pakistan 433 kt a resolution aimed at addressing the management of e-waste. It contains a definition
of this category of waste and provides directives for its collection, storage, disposal,
transport,
and recycling. In Kazakhstan, the EPR for e-waste has been reflected in the concept for because of the solid waste ban import policy. However, the increasing gap between
transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to a Green Economy, adopted in 2013, which fund levies and subsidies is imposing the distinct challenges for e-waste funding policy
provides a basis for the implementation of “the principles of a manufacturer’s extended (Zeng et al. 2017). The Chinese Government has set targets of sourcing 20% of raw
liability to cover part of the costs for collection and disposal of packaging, electronic materials for new electronics products from recycled content and recycling 50% of
and electric equipment, transport vehicles, batteries, furniture, and other used goods”. electronic waste by 2025 (World Economic Forum 2018). Taiwan’s (Province of China)
This is close to the EPR concept, but does not have any licensing or financing e-waste collection and recycling rate had reached 64% of the products covered by the
mechanism to cover the transportation and depollution in the legislation. The inclusion legislation in 2018(37); this significant achievement is based on the 4-in-1 recycling
of such licensing and financial mechanisms are currently under discussion. system that focuses on applying the EPR concept to the recycling system. The
mechanism has substantially improved under the supervision of the Recycling Fund
E-waste management system Management Board (RFMB). Taiwan, Province of China, has about 20 e-waste
The e-waste management systems found in Asia are rather broad. The e-waste recycling facilities whose capacity is higher than the current domestic e-waste
management systems found in Asia are rather broad. They range from very advanced generation, so the e-waste recycling business in Taiwan, Province of China, is
e-waste management systems, such as in the Republic of Korea, Japan, China experiencing challenges. Japan relies on a strong legal framework, an advanced
(including the Province of Taiwan) to informal activities that coexist alongside the collection system, and developed processing infrastructure. In 2016, under the Act on
advanced recycling system in China, but which dominate the e-waste management in Recycling of Specified Kinds of Home Appliances, Japan collected 570.3 kt through
the other parts of Asia. E-waste management in South Asia is largely based on official channels.
informal sector activities for collection, dismantling, and recycling. Legislation in India In Central Asia, most of e-waste generated ends up in landfills or illegal dumping sites.
has been a driver for the setting up of formal recycling facilities, and there are 312 In the Kazakhstan EPR system, some collection and recycling sites have been set up,
authorised recyclers in India, with the capacity for treating approximately 800 kt but the capacity is not sufficient to manage the country's entire e-waste or to finance
annually. However, formal recycling capacity remains underutilised, as the large the transportation of e-waste to it. In the entire region, it is common that consumers
majority of the waste is still handled by the informal sector. There are 31 authorised send their discarded electric/electronic devices to small companies, which then
PROs providing compliance services, including the collection and channelization of e- dismantle them and reuse certain components. So, several governments took
waste to formal recycling facilities, as well as the administration of awareness measures in order to address the issue. For instance, in Uzbekistan, progress was
campaigns. Enforcing rules remains a challenge, as do other aspects, such as the lack achieved from 2014-2016 by upgrading municipal waste infrastructure, and in 2017,
of proper collection and logistics infrastructure, limited awareness of consumers on the president launched a major five-year programme to improve waste collection,
the hazards of improper disposal of e-waste, the lack of standards for collection, disposal, and recycling nationwide. However, no regulatory measures have been
dismantling of e-waste and treatment of it, and an inefficient and tedious reporting introduced specifically in relation to e-waste.
process. In Western Asia, the countries range from very rich to very poor. Despite that, the e-
Current statistics show that China is the world's top e-waste producer, having waste management system is mostly informal. In the rich countries, there are large
generated migrant workers that reuse or repair donated used-EEE from the richer households,
10.1 Mt of e-waste in 2019. China plays a key role in the global EEE industry for two but this is unique within the region. The United Arab Emirates have invested in a
primary reasons: it is the world's most populous country, so the domestic demand of specialized facility located at the Dubai Industrial Park that has a capacity of 100 kt of
EEE is very high, and it has a strong EEE manufacturing industry. Additionally, China e-waste per year. However, as aforementioned, most e-waste is largely uncontrolled
plays a significant role in the refurbishment, reuse, and recycling of e-waste. Driven by and managed by the informal sector. In the middle and south of Palestine, there are
e-waste regulation and the facilities expansion, the formal e-waste recycling industry three main landfills where e-waste is dumped, and the region is experiencing illegal
has shown considerable growth in treatment capacity and quality; more than 70 imports of e-waste without having the adequate environmentally sound recycling
million e-waste units are dismantled annually (China Ministry of Ecology and infrastructure in place. According to an e-waste study conducted in 2019 by UNIDO in
Environment 2019). According to the Chinese government, the actual collection and coordination with the Lebanese Ministry of Industry, a certain quantity of e-waste in
recycling rate is 40%, but it is important to note that this number only refers to 5 EEE Lebanon is also landfilled, and more still is exported as scrap, mainly by the informal
products, as opposed to the 54 EEE products (UNU-Keys) listed in the international e- sector, while a small percentage is dismantled and sent to abroad to recycling facilities
waste classification (Annex 1). The collection and recycling rate drops to 15% if all 54 through the formal sector. The study also revealed that e-waste recycling in Lebanon is
products are considered. The informal sector has been dramatically declining, due to currently limited because of high operational costs, particularly energy, and the
stricter controls from China’s new environmental law. The illegal importation of e- complexity and potential hazards of e-wastes (UNIDO 2019).
waste disappears more expeditiously
C hapter 9. Regional E-Waste Key Statistics
Legislation
E-waste status in Europe in 2019 In Europe, the majority of e-waste is regulated by the WEEE Directive (2012/19/EU).
This regulation is in force in the European Union and in Norway. Other countries –
including Iceland, Switzerland, and several Balkan countries, such as Serbia and
12.0 Mt | 16.2 kg per capita $12.9 billion USD Bosnia and Herzegovina – have similar laws. The WEEE Directive set collection,
e-waste generated value of raw materials recycling, reuse, and recovery targets for all six categories of e-waste. From 2018
in e-waste
onwards, article 7 of the WEEE Directive states that the minimum collection rate to
42.5% | 5.1 Mt
12.7 Mt CO2 equivalents be achieved annually by a member state shall be either 65% of the average weight of
mented wasted fridges and air conditioners EEE POM in the three preceding years or 85% of e-waste generated on the territory
37 countries
of a member state in 2018. Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary,
have a national e-waste legisla- 0.01 kt Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, and Slovakia may have the option to remove
tion/policy or regulation in place a mount of mercur y from undocumented fl ows of e-waste
themselves from this regulation by 2021 because of their relatively low level of EEE
11.4 kt consumption. The latest developments in the implementation of the WEEE Directive
740
39
countries analysed
a mount of B F R from undocumented fl ows of e-waste are the introduction of the open scope and newly specified reporting guidelines.
Since August 15, 2018, the so-called open scope has been in place. The open scope
Countries with the hi g he s t e -wa s te
E-waste generated
means that EEE products are a priori considered to be in scope in the European
generation per sub-region Legend
E-waste generated (in Mt 0 to 5 kg per capita Union, unless specific exclusions apply. This means, in practice, that new products,
Eastern Europe
and kg per capita)
E-waste documented to be
such as clothes and furniture with electric functionality, can fall under the directive.
3.2 Mt | 11 kg per capita
Population
15 to 20 kg per capita With regard to e-waste statistics, the most important decisions are calculation
23% | 0.7 Mt 289 (in millions)
25+ kg per capita methods for preparation of reuse, exports of e-waste, the e-waste generated
Poland 443 kt
Russian
Ukraine Federation 1.631
324kt
kt methodology, and the reporting categories. Preparation for reuse is defined as the
weight of whole appliances that have become waste and of components of e-waste
Northern Europe
that, following checking, cleaning, or repairing operations, can be reused without any
4.Mt | 22.4 kg per capita 59% |
further sorting or preprocessing. It also contains a decision on the registration of e-
1.4 Mt 105 United
waste exports. Where e-waste is sent for treatment in another member state or
Kingdom 1.598 kt
Sweden 208 kt exported for treatment in a third country in accordance with Article 10 of Directive
Norway 139 kt
2012/19/EU, only the member state that has collected and sent or exported the e-
Southern Europe waste for treatment may count it towards the minimum recovery targets referred. Note
5.Mt | 16.7 kg per capita 34% | that the directive does not yet cover any decision on exports of reused products, as
Spain
0.9 Mt 151 Italy
888 kt
1.063 kt
they are not yet waste. Also, member states have to report the data on the weight of
Greece 181 kt e-waste generated. Another decision is that data shall be reported in the six
Western Europe
categories, but that Category 4, Large equipment, is split into Category 4a (Large
equipment excluding photovoltaic panels) and Category 4b (Large equipment
4 Mt | 20.3 kg per capita 54% | 2.1 Mt
195 including
In Ukraine,photovoltaic panels).
an EPR system based on the EU WEEE Directive is in development, by the
Germany 1.607 kt association agreement from the EU and Ukraine. Thanks to the collaborative project
France 1.362 kt
Netherlands 373 kt supported by the EU, the Ministry of Ukraine Regional Development received support
to establish a legal basis on the disposal of electronic waste and batteries. Recently,
the two-year project “Implementation of Management System for Waste of Electric
and Electronic Equipment and Batteries in Ukraine” has been completed. This project
helped develop two laws: The Bill on Batteries and Accumulators and the Bill on
Waste of Electric and Electronic Equipment, which is expected to pass parliament in
2020.
In Belarus, there is a general law, Law No. 271-Z on waste management, dated July 20, of in mixed residual waste as well as e-waste that is non-compliantly recycled with
2007. E-waste is managed within a framework of EPR of manufacturers and suppliers. metal scrap. In the Netherlands, the exports for reuse have been quantified as being
The e-waste categories featured are large equipment, whose lengths are over 160 cm; roughly 8% of the total e-waste generated (Baldé et al. 2020). These exports are
medium-sized items, sized 80-160 cm; and small items, under 80 cm in length. mostly comprised of EEE from IT servers and laptops from dedicated refurbishing
Within the “Municipal Waste Management and Use of Recycled Resources” companies, as well as used fridges, used microwaves, and other durable goods that
component of the national programme “Comfortable Accommodation and Favourable are stuffed in second-hand vehicles or containers and shipped to Africa. Exports for
Environment” for 2016-2020 (Order of the Council of Ministers of Belarus, dated April reuse are considered as lifetime extensions and are a part of the circular economy.
21, 2016, No. 326), an objective was set to reach the intermediate target of 20% by But many other EU countries do not have such data, and without it, reaching the
2019. Ferrous metal law bans the collection of e-waste by metal scrap recyclers. collection targets in those exporting countries will be more difficult, if not impossible.
Despite that, such collection probably still happens. Valuable components are taken The lower-income EU countries that have a lower consumption of EEE than higher-
out, and hazardous substances are dumped. In Moldova, a national strategy on waste income countries can also be recipient countries of those exports for reuse. The
has been in effect since 2013. There is an EU-Republic Moldovan association recent studies also indicate that despite the relatively high environmental awareness
agreement, under which several association agreements on environmental legislation in the EU, e-waste is still disposed of in residual waste, and the small e-waste ends up
exist. Within that context, the EPR on e-waste was approved in 2018. In Moldova, e- in residual waste bins. This comprises approximately 0.6 Mt of the EU's e-waste
waste is classified into the 10 categories of the old EU WEEE Directive, as opposed to (Rotter et al. 2016). A positive note is that the share of e-waste in the residual waste
the current 6 categories enforced in the EU. The EPR law specifies that there are also declined in the Netherlands from 11% to 9% of e-waste generated in the past decade
collection and recycling targets based on EEE POM of the three preceding years. In (Baldé et al. 2020). The largest uncompliant flow of e-waste is managed together
2020, there is a 5% collection target. This will gradually increase by 5% each year with metal scrap, but without proper depollution steps in place.
until 30% in 2025. In 2017, Russia has started an EPR programme for electrical and Compared to other European countries in its region, Belarus has a relatively
electronic scrap. Manufacturers and importers must help collect and process advanced e-waste collection and recycling sector. There are municipal drop-off and
obsolete electronics in accordance with Russian circular economy legislation. collection points and private pick-up and collection points, and e-waste is also
E-waste management systems collected from repair and service centers. Belarus collected 23 kt of e-waste in 2019.
In the European Union, there is a very well-developed compliant e-waste management The collection from households is incentivized by a small financial transaction that the
infrastructure to collect e-waste in shops and municipalities by private operators, as compliant waste collector (or recycler) receives from the government. However,
well as to further recover the recyclable components of the collected e-waste and private companies and governmental agencies have to pay for the e-waste collection.
dispose residuals in a compliant and environmentally sound manner. This has been The e-waste collection from public agencies might be hampered because they have to
established by the relatively long-running history of EU e-waste legislation since early pay a small fee, and the agencies are typically underfunded. So, public agencies
in 2003. Consequently, statistics show that 59% of the e-waste generated in Northern typically store the equipment.
Europe and 54% of e-waste generated in Western Europe is documented as being In other Eastern European countries, such as the Balkans, e-waste collection is
formally recycled; the e-waste collection data was reported for 2017. Those are the beginning and an e-waste management infrastructure is currently in development, but
highest percentages in the world. For the reference year 2019, 85% of e-waste not yet achieving same rates of e-waste as in Northern and Western Europe. In
generated, or 65% EEE POM of the three preceding years, has to be collected by a Moldova, there are collection points from municipalities. Some private companies get
member state of the EU, which indicates that collection and recycling must increase equipment from schools, universities, and other public authorities. In Russia and
even further to meet the collection targets. Ukraine, there are enterprises that collect e-waste and manage it in an
environmentally sound manner. However, there are too few e-waste collection points,
The feasibility of achieving the target and the location of other e-waste have therefore and the e-waste management capacity is not enough to recycle all domestic e-waste
been subject to several country studies in recent years. During the writing of this in an environmentally sound manner. Thus, e-waste is likely to be recycled together
study, the most recent studies have been performed in the Netherlands (Baldé et al. with metal scrap or dumped in landfills.
2020) and Romania (Magalini et al. 2019). These studies indicate that an increasing
share of e-waste, compared to the e-waste generated, has been compliantly recycled
in the past. However, significant parts are still managed outside the compliant
recycling sectors in the EU. E-waste management takes place by exporting for reuse,
e-waste that is disposed
Legislation
E-waste status in Oceania in 2019 The National Television and Computer Recycling Scheme (NTCRS) was implemented
in Australia under the Australian Government’s Product Stewardship Act 2011. The
Act went into effect on August 8, 2011. Under the Act, the Product Stewardship
0.7 Mt | 16.1 kg per capita $0.7 billion USD (Televisions and Computers) Regulations 2011 also went into effect on November 8,
e-waste generated value of raw 2011. This regulation provides Australian householders and small business with
access to industry-funded collection and recycling services for televisions and
8.8% | 0.06 Mt
1.0 Mt CO2 equivalents computers. The co-regulatory aspect is a key feature of the above regulation,
mented wasted fridges and air conditioners whereby the Australian Government, through the regulations, has set the outcomes to
1 country be achieved by industry and how the plan to be implemented. The television and
has a national e-waste legisla- 0.001 kt computer industries, operating through the approved co-regulatory arrangements
tion/policy or regulation in place amount of mercury from undocumented fl ows of e-waste
(Producer Responsibility Organisation) will determine how to deliver these outcomes
1.1 kt efficiently. The plan provides approximately 98% of the Australian population with
42
12
countries an aly sed
a mount of B F R from undocumented fl ows of e-waste reasonable access to collection services. These services may include a permanent
collection site at a local waste transfer station or retail outlet, or at one-off events.
The television and computer industries are required to fund collection and recycling of
a proportion of the televisions and computers disposed of in Australia each year and
to increase the rate of recycling of televisions and computers in Australia to 80% by
2026-2027.
Countries with the hi g he s t e -wa s te E-waste management system
generation per sub-region
Under the Product Stewardship (Televisions and Computers) Regulations 2011,
Australia and New Zealand approved co-regulatory arrangements are required to provide independently audited
0.7 Mt | 21.3 kg per capita 9% | 0.06 Mt annual reports for the Department to publish. These co-regulatory arrangements
31 Australia report on a range of matters related to their role as administrators of the plan.
554 kt Currently, four co- regulatory arrangements manage the day-to-day operation of
New Zealand 96 kt
NTCRS. Since the plan's inception, more than 291 kt of TV and computer e-waste has
Melanesia been collected and recycled. During the 2017-2018 financial year, the plan recycled
0.02 Mt | 1.5 kg per capita 0% | 0 Mt approximately 58 kt of e-waste, equating to a recovery rate greater than 93%. The
10 Papua New Guinea 9 kt plan also ensured that all recyclers were certified to AS/NZS 5377:2013 standards
Fiji 5 kt
with regard to recycling e-waste safely (Australian Government 2019).
Micronesia
0.0005 Mt | 2 kg per capita 0% | 0 Mt With a ban starting in July 2019, the Government of Victoria is the latest Australian
0.2 Micronesia (Fed. state government to ban e-waste in landfills and has announced an A$16.5 million
St.) 0.20 kt package both to encourage safe management of hazardous materials found in e-
Palau 0.17 kt
waste and to enable greater recovery of the valuable materials, ultimately leading to a
Polynesia more stable industry and more jobs for Victoria. Sustainability Victoria launched a
0.001 Mt | 3.1 kg per capita 0% | 0 Mt Legend E - wa st e generated new campaign, implementing a A$1.5 million community education programme on
0.3 Samoa 0.6 kt
E-waste generated (in Mt
and kg per capita)
0 to 5 kg per capita July 4, 2018 to educate Victorians about the value of e-waste and how it can be
Tonga 0.3 kt 5 to 15 kg per capita
E-waste documented to be 15+ kg per capita recycled. The campaign features a new website, ewaste.vic.gov.au, which includes an
Population animated video showcasing the valuable materials inside our electronics and social
(in m illion s)
media and digital advertising (Sustainability Victoria 2019).

Compared to Australia, the Government of New Zealand is still considering developing
a mandatory national plan for dealing with the e-waste issue. Estimations are that
more than 97 kt of e-waste are being disposed of as landfill each year with more than
98.2% of generated household e-waste ending up in landfills. Such an outcome is
largely due to limited diversion of e-waste into more appropriate recycling and
treatment and the lack of a mandatory product stewardship-based approach to
managing e-waste in New Zealand. E-waste product stewardship plans by individual
producers are few and relatively minor. As well, there is no formalized system overall
for e-waste management (Blake, Farrelly, and Hannon 2019).
The Pacific Islands region (PICTs), consisting of 22 countries and territories, face
unique challenges due to their spread-out geography. The limited availability of
suitable land on small islands and atolls for constructing landfills, the islands'
remoteness, and the islands' relatively small populations cause issues for large
economies, as waste management technologies, rapid urbanisation, limited
institutional, and human resource capacities are among the key challenges faced by
PICTs. The Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) has
the lead responsibility for regional coordination and delivery of waste management
and pollution control action and uses the strategic management framework, Cleaner
Pacific 2025, in guiding regional cooperation and collaboration. SPREP also works
with key international and regional partners to achieve greater integration of
sustainable funding and to support mechanisms for waste, chemicals, and pollution
management programmes.

Endnotes
80
(1) The e-waste collection rate is identical to the sub-indicator defined in SDG (12) Guo Y at al. 2010a; Guo Y et al. 2012a; Huo X et al. 2019a; Li M et al. 2018a; Wu
12.5.1. If the e-waste is collected through official collection systems, it can be K et al. 2011a; Wu K et al. 2012a; Xu X et al. 2012a; Xu L et al. 2015b; Xu L et al.
assumed that e-waste collected equals e-waste recycled, though in practice 2016a; Zhang Y et al. 2018a. > page 65
there might be losses taking place during the treatment phase. > page 23 (13) Zheng G et al 2013a; Xu X et al. 2015a; Zeng X et al. 2019a, Xu X et
(2) E-waste documented as being formally collected and recycled and its respective al. 2015b. > page 65
recycling rate refer to data officially reported by governments (the preferred data (14) Li Y et al. 2008b; Zhang R et al. 2015a; Liu J et al. 2011a; Liu L et al.
source in this report) or, in other instances, by recyclers. In several countries 2015a; Liu L et al. 2018a; Wang X et al. 2012a; Zhang R et al. 2015a. >
and global regions, e-waste is often also collected by the informal system, but (15) page 65 Soetrisno et al. 2020. > page 65
those quantities are not accounted for in either the indicator “e-waste (16) Cao J et al. 2018; Dai Y et al. 2017a; Huo X et al. 2019b; Zhang Y et al 2016a;
documented to be collected and recycled” or the respective recycling rate – for Zhang Y et al. 2017a. > page 65
two main reasons: (17) Zheng G et al. 2013a; Zeng X et al. 2017a; Zeng X et al. 2017b. > page
1) due to the activities' “informal” nature, they are not regulated, and data are (18) 65 Amoabeng Nti AA et al. 2020. > page 65
hardly available at the governmental level; and 2) e-waste managed by the (19) Grant et al. 2013; Xu P et al. 2015a. > page 65
informal system is most likely not recycled in an environmental sound way. (20) Zhang B et al. 2017a. > page
> page 25 65
(21) Li Y et al. 2008a; Ni W et al. 2014a. > page
(3) The workplan and other information is available from (22) 65 Li Y et al. 2011. > page 65
https://uneplive.unep.org/indicator/index/12_5_1. > page (23) Neitzel RL et al. 2020; Alabi OA et al. 2012. > page
30 (24) 65 Liu Y et al. 2018a. > page 65
(4) The Guidelines were endorsed by ESCAP, ESCWA, ITU, (25) Zeng Z et al. 2018a. > page 65
OECD, UNCTAD, UNECA, (26) Cong X et al. 2018a; Lu X et al 2018a. > page 65
EUROSTAT, UNEP/SBC, and UNU. > page 35 (27) Yohannessen K et al. 2019; Ohajinwa CM et al. 2018. > page
(5) E-waste is also often not discarded by its owner and, instead, is stored at (28) 66 Fischer et al. 2020; Decharat et al 2020. > page 66
home or can be donated as a second-hand product. However, by definition, (29) Decharat S 2018; Feldt T et al. 2014. > page 66
the EEE becomes e-waste only once its owner intends to discard the (30) Okeme JO et al. 2019; Decharat et al 2020; Seith et al. 2019. > page
product and, thus, after it leaves the home. > page 37 66
(31) Chen L et al. 2010a; Li K et al. 2014a; Liu Q et al. 2009a; Wang Q et al. 2011a;
(6) www.basel.int/Countries/StatusofRatifications/PartiesSignatories/tabid/4499/ Yuan J et al. 2008a. > page 66
Default.aspx > page 54 (32) Neitzel RL et al. 2020. > page
(7) Critical raw materials are identified as one of the priority areas in the EU action (33) 66 Song S et al. 2019a. > page
plan for the Circular Economy. The most recent criticality assessment, (34) 66 Chen Y et al. 2019a. > page
performed in 2017, identified 27 critical raw materials. > page 58 (35) 66
(8) Precious metals (e.g. gold, silver, copper, platinum, palladium, ruthenium, (36) Li Y et al. 2012a; Xu X 2014a. > page
rhodium, iridium, and osmium) and critical materials (e.g. cobalt, (37) 66 Igharo OG et al. 2018. > page 66
palladium, indium, germanium, bismuth, and antimony). > page 59 Regulated Recyclable waste under the 4-in-1 Recycling system: laptops,
(9)
(10) The methodology for the calculation of the value of precious metals found motherboards, hard disks, power packs, shells, monitors, printers, keyboards,
in televisions, washing machines, refrigerators, air conditioners, fans, and light
e-waste has been updated from the methodology in the Global E-waste (38) bulbs/tubes (US EPA and Office of Internartional Affairs Tribal 2012). > page
Monitor 2017. This update is explicated in Annex 2. > page 59 75 The Harmonised Commodity Description and Coding System, generally
(11) The total amount of raw materials found in e-waste generated in 2019 was referred to as “Harmonised System” or simply “HS”, is a multipurpose
compared to the total amount of raw materials found in EEE Placed on the international product nomenclature developed by the World Customs
Market in the same year. The methodology for the calculation of raw materials (39) Organization (WCO).
found in > page 101
e-waste and the related data sources are presented in Annex 2. > page 59 Central Product Classification (CPC), Version 1.1. > page 101
The releases of CO 2 equivalents were estimated by linking the amount and type
of refrigerant used in fridges and air conditioners produced between 1995 and Endnotes 81
Sources to Annex 3: Country E-waste Key Statistics > page
104
(40)
(41) Telecom Argentina.
Australian Ministry of Environment.
(42) Eurostat.
(43) UNSD Questionnaire (UNSD
(44) 2019).
Reporte de Sustentabilidad Bienal 2011-2012.
(45) Solidarite Technologique.
(46) OECD Questionnaire.
(47) Ministry of Environment (Chile).
(48) Ministry of Environment (China).
(49) Hong Kong Environmental Protection
Department.
(50)
(51) Ministry of (Rush
Litterature Education (El Salvador).
Martínez et. al
(52) 2015). Assocham India.
(53) National Solid Waste Management Authority
(54) (Jamaica). National Statistics Office (Jordan).
(55) Africa Institute
(56) 2012. Namigreen.
(57) Ministry of Health
(58) (Peru).
(59) Analytical Center for the Government of Russian
(60) Federation. Ministry2017).
Litterature (Roldan of Trade and Industry (Rwanda).
(61) IENE.
(62) Litterature (Lydall M. et al.
(63) 2017). Exitcom.
(64) Computers for School Uganda.
(65) Environmental Protection Agency (USA).
(66) Questionnaires conducted by UNSD, OECD and UNECE in
2014/2015.
82 Endnotes
Endnotes 83
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Literature 93
About the Authors
94
Vanessa FORTI is a Programme Associate at UNU- Vie- Dr. Ruediger KUEHR is Director of the UNU Vice
SCYCLE. Vanessa's research is focused on waste Rectorate in Europe, Sustainable Cycles Programme
quantification and the evaluation of its impacts, and she (SCYCLE), focusing its work and activities on sustainable
is the author of various publications that focus on production, consumption, and disposal. Ruediger co-
quantifying e-waste amounts and environmental impacts, founded the Solving the E-waste Problem (StEP)
such as the 2017 edition of the Global E-waste Monitor Initiative and functioned as its Executive Secretary from
2017 (Baldé et al. 2017) and the globally recognised E- 2007-2017. From 1999- 2009, he served as Head of the
waste Statistics Guidelines on classification, reporting UNU Zero Emissions Forum (ZEF) – European Focal
and indicators (Forti et al. 2018). The Global E-waste Point, and from 2000-2002 he was Secretary to the
Monitor 2017 won the European Advanced SDG award Alliance for Global Eco-Structuring (AGES) under UNEP’s
from the Diplomatic Cleaner Production Network. Ruediger has
Academy in Vienna. She is responsible for the regular update of methodologies, co-authored and co-edited several books, studies, and proceedings, including the
programming, data collection, surveying, modelling, and reporting on waste statistics previous Global E-waste Monitors in 2014 and 2017. He also publishes and lectures
(e-waste, mercury, and battery waste), and she attained the role of Data Manager on, inter alia, environmental technology transfer, transnational environmental policies,
within the SCYCLE team. In addition, she has co-developed EEE Placed on Market strategic sustainable development, and development cooperation. Ruediger has also
and WEEE Generated tools and manuals that are used globally. She is also a member been the Project Manager of the “2008 Review of Directive 2002/96/EC on waste
of the Global E-waste Statistics Partnership, which works to help countries produce e- electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)” (2007). A political and social scientist by
waste statistics and to build a global e-waste database for tracking developments education with a PhD (Dr. rer. pol.) from the University of Osnabrück (Germany) and
over time. She is in charge of organizing, developing, and conducting capacity- an MA from the University of Münster (Germany), as well as additional post-graduate
building workshops on e-waste statistics and building institutional capacity on e-waste studies in Tokyo, (Japan), he has served as Senior R&D Specialist with The Natural
in developing countries. Vanessa holds a Master's degree in Environmental Step in Sweden and as a freelance policy-consultant to various national governments,
Engineering from Università degli Studi di Bologna, where she graduated cum laude. international organizations, and companies. He was a visiting fellow to the Free
Dr. Cornelis Peter BALDÉ (Kees) is a Senior Programme University of Berlin (Germany) and the Hitotsubashi University (Japan) and a
Officer at the Sustainable Cycles Programme at the Research Associate to the Japan Research Centre of the University of Osnabrück.
United Nations University. At the UNU, Kees’s main Garam BEL is the E-waste Officer for the Telecommuni-
tasks are to lead the statistical work, build institutional cation Development Bureau (BDT) of the International
capacity on waste statistics in various countries, and Telecommunication Union (ITU), based in Geneva.
waste policies, provide policy advice on e-waste to Working in the Environment and Emergency
countries, and supervise staff and the strategic Telecommunications Division (EET), he oversees the e-
development of the team. He is one of the founders of waste activities of BDT, covering policy development and
the Global E-waste Statistics Partnership. Kees is awareness-raising. As part of the Global E-waste
currently the co-chair of the Taskforce on Waste Statistics Statistics Partnership, Garam coordinates the input from
of the UNECE Conference of European Statisticians that BDT on capacity-building and awareness initiatives
is relating to e-waste quantification. Prior to joining ITU,
tasked with developing a framework for waste statistics that is sufficient for monitoring he worked for the Environment
current and future circular economy policies as well as waste policies. Additionally, Management Group, which is a system-wide UN coordination body on environment
Kees has been selected by the Dutch government as a member of the board of and human settlements. In this position, he led activities towards streamlining the
directors of the Dutch Waste Electronical and Electronic Appliances Register, a role various e-waste-related initiatives of UN agencies and programmes. Before moving to
he has held since 2015. In 2018, the Global E-waste Monitor 2017 won the European Geneva, Garam worked for a local government in Scotland in the area of municipal
Advanced SDG award from the Diplomatic Academy in Vienna. At Statistics solid waste. He holds a master's degree in Standardization, Social Regulation and
Netherlands, Kees received the Innovation Award for the Dutch Green Growth Sustainable Development from the University of Geneva.
publication in 2012. Previously, Kees worked at Statistics Netherlands as the deputy
head of the Environment Statistics team. He earned his PhD on hydrogen storage at
the Faculty of Chemistry at Utrecht University. About the Authors 95
Annex
1
UNU-KEYS and
Link to E-waste
Categories
Classifi cati on of E E E under the UN U- keys and correlati on of
96 U N U - key s with the categories under EU-6 classifi cati on
UNU- Description EEE category UNU- Description EEE category
KEY under EU-6 KEY under EU-6
0001 Central Heating (household installed) Large equipment 0112 Other Cooling equipment (e.g. dehumidifiers, heat Temp. exchange
pump dryers) equipment
0002 Photovoltaic Panels (incl. inverters) Large equipment 0113 Professional Cooling equipment (e.g. large air conditi- Temp. exchange
oners, cooling displays) equipment
0101 Professional Heating & Ventilation (excl. cooling Large equipment 0114 Microwaves (incl. combined, excl. grills) Small equipment
equipment)
0102 Dish washers Large equipment 0201 Other small household equipment (e.g. small ventila- Small equipment
tors, irons, clocks, adapters)
0103 Kitchen equipment (e.g. large furnaces, ovens, Large equipment 0202 Equipment for food preparation (e.g. toaster, grills, Small equipment
cooking equipment) food processing, frying pans)
0104 Washing Machines (incl. combined dryers) Large equipment 0203 Small household equipment for hot water preparation Small equipment
(e.g. coffee, tea, water cookers)
0105 Dryers (washer-dryers, centrifuges) Large equipment 0204 Vacuum Cleaners (excl. professional) Small equipment
0106 Household Heating & Ventilation (e.g. hoods, ventila- Large equipment 0205 Personal Care equipment (e.g. tooth brushes, hair Small equipment
tors, space heaters) dryers, razors)
0108 Fridges (incl. combi fridges) Temp. exchange 0301 Small IT equipment (e.g. routers, mice, keyboards, ex- Small IT
equipment ternal drives, accessories)
0109 Freezers Temp. exchange 0302 Desktop PCs (excl. monitors, accessoires) Small IT
equipment
0111 Air Conditioners (household installed and portable) Temp. exchange 0303 Laptops (incl. tablets) Screens and
equipment monitors
Annex 1. UNU-KEYS and Link to E-waste 97

Categories
UNU- Description EEE category UNU- Description EEE category
KEY under EU-6 KEY under EU-6
0304 Printers (e.g. scanners, multifunctionals, faxes) Small IT 0406 Cameras (e.g. camcorders, photo & digital still came- Small equipment
ras)
0305 Telecommunication equipment (e.g. [cordless] Small IT 0407 Cathode Ray Tube TVs Screens and
phones, answering machines) monitors
0306 Mobile Phones (incl. smartphones, pagers) Small IT 0408 Flat Display Panel TVs (LCD, LED, Plasma) Screens and
monitors
0307 Professional IT equipment (e.g. servers, routers, data Large equipment 0501 Small Lighting equipment (excl. LED & incandescent) Small equipment
storage, copiers)
0308 Cathode Ray Tube Monitors Screens and 0502 Compact Fluorescent Lamps (incl. retrofit & Lamps
monitors non-retrofit)
0309 Flat Display Panel Monitors (LCD, LED) Screens and 0503 Straight Tube Fluorescent Lamps Lamps
monitors
0401 Small Consumer Electronics (e.g. headphones, remote Small equipment 0504 Special Lamps (e.g. professional mercury, high & Lamps
controls) low pressure sodium)
0402 Portable Audio & Video (e.g. MP3 players, e-readers, Small equipment 0505 LED Lamps (incl. retrofit LED lamps) Lamps
car navigation)
0403 Musical Instruments, Radio, Hi-Fi (incl. audio sets) Small equipment 0506 Household Luminaires (incl. household Small equipment
incandescent fittings & household LED luminaires)
0404 Video (e.g. Video recorders, DVD and Blu-ray players, Small equipment 0507 Professional Luminaires (offices, public space, Small equipment
set-top boxes) and Projectors industry)
0405 Speakers Small equipment 0601 Household Tools (e.g. drills, saws, high-pressure clea- Small equipment
ners, lawnmowers)
98 Annex 1. UNU-KEYS and Link to E-waste

Categories
UNU- Description EEE category
KEY under EU-6
0602 Professional Tools (e.g. for welding, soldering, Large equipment

milling)
0701 Toys (e.g. car racing sets, electric trains, music toys, Small equipment
biking computers, drones)
0702 Game Consoles Small IT
0703 Leisure equipment (e.g. sports equipment, electric Large equipment

bikes, juke boxes)
0801 Household Medical equipment (e.g. thermometers, Small equipment

blood pressure meters)
0802 Professional Medical equipment (e.g. hospital, Large equipment

dentist, diagnostics)
0901 Household Monitoring & Control equipment (alarm, Small equipment

heat, smoke, excl. screens)
0902 Professional Monitoring & Control equipment Large equipment

(e.g. laboratory, control panels)
1001 Non-cooled Dispensers (e.g. for vending, hot drinks, Large equipment
tickets, money)
1002 Cooled Dispensers (e.g. for vending, cold drinks) Temp. exchange
equipment
Annex 1. UNU-KEYS and Link to E-waste 99

Categories
Annex 2
Methodology
100
Calculation of EEE Placed on Market (POM), E-waste Generated, and Stocks Panels) because data are not available in the UN Comtrade
The calculation of e-waste generated is based on both empirical data from the database.
apparent consumption method for calculating the EEE POM and a sales-lifespan 6. Perform automatic corrections for outliers on the sales data. This is needed to
model. In this model, lifespan data for each product is subjected to the EEE POM detect values that were too low (due to the lack of domestic production data in
(using a Weibull function) to calculate the e-waste generated. The methodology some countries where domestic production is relatively large) or too high (due to
described to determine EEE Placed on the Market is compliant with the Common misreporting of codes or units). Those detected entries are replaced with more
Methodology approach as defined in Article 7 of the EU-WEEE Directive (Magalini et realistic sales values either from the time series of the origin country or from
al. 2014). comparable countries. These statistical routines lead to a harmonised dataset with
The data in this report was obtained and treated using the following a similar scope and consistent sales for a country based on their own trade
steps:
1. Select the relevant codes that describe EEE in the Harmonised Commodity statistics.
Description and Coding System (HS).(38) 7. Perform manual corrections based on the analysis of the automatic corrections.
This is needed to correct unreliable data using knowledge of the market.
2. For the European Union, the international trade statistical data was extracted from For instance, CRT TVs have not been sold in recent years. In addition, country
Eurostat in the eight-digit combined nomenclature (CN) codes. Domestic data on Placed on the Market kindly provided by Bosnia and Herzegovina were
production data was also extracted from Eurostat. For the other countries, substituted to the data estimated with the apparent consumption method.
statistical data on imports and exports was extracted from the UN Comtrade
database. This was done for 181 countries and approximately 220 HS codes for 8. Perform corrections based on the knowledge of the possession rates measured by
the years 1995-2018. Countries were then classified into five groups according to ITU for desktop PCs and by UNICEF (UNICEF 2018) for 75 countries and 5 UNU_
the Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) for the scenario business as usual, retrieved KEYS (0403, 0407, 0306, 0305, 0108).
from Riahi et al. 2017. This procedure was repeated for each year since the
Country’s PPP changes over the years, especially for developing countries. This 9. Extend the time series of Placed on the Market. Past POM are calculated back to
process was useful to make statistics comparable between countries and to 1980 based on the trends of the available data and the market entry of the
calculate trends between groups. appliance. Future POM are predicted until 2030 using sophisticated extrapolation
Group 1: highest PPP (higher than $32,312 USD per capita in methods. The principle takes into account the ratio between the POM and the
2016) Group 2: high PPP ($32,312 USD - $13,560 USD per PPP per county and uses that ratio to estimate the Placed on the Market with the
capita in 2016) Group 3: mid PPP ($13,560 - $6,217 USD per forecast of the PPP from the SS P Database (Shared Socioeconomic Pathways)
capita in 2016) (Riahi et al. 2017).
Group 4: low PPP ($6,217 - $1,769 USD per capita in 2016) 10. Determine the e-waste generated by country by using the Placed on the Market
Group 5: lowest PPP (lower than $1,769 USD per capita in and lifetime distributions. Lifetime data is obtained from the 28 EU member
2016) the units to weight using the average weight data per appliance type. The
3. Convert states using the Weibull distribution. Ideally, the lifetime of each product are
average weights are published in E-waste Statistics Guidelines (Forti, Baldé, and determined empirically per product per type of country. At this stage, only
Kuehr 2018). harmonised European residence times of EEE were available from extensive
studies performed for the EU and were found to be quite homogeneous across
4. Calculate the weight of Placed on the Market for the 54 UNU-KEYS by using the Europe, leading to a 10% deviation in final outcomes (Magalini et al. 2014). Due
apparent consumption approach: POM = Domestic Production + Import – Export to the absence of data, it was assumed that the higher residence times per
(this equation refers to the 28 EU member states). For countries other than the product in the EU were approximately applicable for non- EU countries as well. In
28 EU member states, data on domestic production was retrieved from the UNSD some cases, this would lead to an overestimation, as a product couldlastlonger in
database in CPC1.1(39) (UNSD 2019), while for China and Vietnam, data on developing countriesthan in developed countriesbecauseresidents of developing
domestic production was retrieved from national registries. When data on countries are likelier to repair products. However, it can also lead to an
domestic production was not available, the following approach was used: underestimation, as the quality of products is often lower in developing countries
POM = Import – Export. because reused equipment or more cheaply produced versions that don’t last as
5. The numbers presented in this report exclude the UNU-KEY 0002 (Photovoltaic long might enter the domestic market. But in general, it is assumed that this
process leads to relatively accurate estimates. It should be noted that the Placed
on the Market
are much more sensitive for the amount of e-waste generated than the lifespans. Unknown Flows
The e-waste gap is the amount of e-waste that is unaccounted for. The unknown flows
11. Determining the stock quantities as the difference between the historical Placed on are calculated by subtracting the e-waste quantities officially collected and the e-
the Market and the e-waste generated over the years. waste found in waste bins from the total amount of e-waste generated.
E-waste in Waste B ins Transboundary movements of UEEE or e-waste

The data on waste bin complementary waste flows in the EU were gathered from the The range of UEEE or e-waste exported was derived by reviewing estimates published
ProSUM project (Wolk-Lewanowicz et al. 2016 & Rotter et al. 2016); the ProSUM in existing literature (e.g. Duan et al. 2013; Lasaridi et al. 2016; USITC 2013; BIO
project is a comprehensive review and analysis of literature of current data and past intelligence Service 2013; Huisman et al. 2015; Zoeteman, Krikke, and Venselaar
trends regarding the disposal of WEEE in waste bins in the EU-28, plus Norway and 2010; Geeraerts, Mutafoglu, and Illés 2016).
Switzerland Primary and secondary data sources were analysed using the ProSUM
bibliography, which consisted of publications, journals, and country studies Population covered by national policies and legislation
quantifying the country’s WEEE and the analysis of household waste sorting in order The development of national e-waste policies and legislation was evaluated in this
to assess the presence of WEEE in current municipal solid waste flows destined for report to assess whether a country had national e-waste management policy and/or
incineration and landfills (Wolk- Lewanowicz et al. 2016). legislation in effect through 2019. Population data was obtained from the UNDESA -
Population Division 2019. The e-waste policy and legislation status in countries were
E-waste documented to be formally collected and recycled derived from a database that was kindly provided by C2P and complemented with
For the EU, total amount of e-waste formally collected and recycled was extracted information from a GSMA study (GSMA, 2020).
from the Eurostat database for 32 countries. The latest data refer to the year 2017.
For other countries in the world, data was collected from questionnaires conducted Quantification of raw materials found in e-waste
by SCYCLE, OECD, and UNSD. Questionnaires have been distributed to more than 80 The amount of raw materials found in e-waste was calculated by linking the
countries in total, but in most cases countries did not have any information, and for composition data from ProSUM to the estimated amount of e-waste generated
those that responded, the datasets were far from complete and harmonised. If data (Huisman et al. 2017). The list of elements considered in the analysis is Ag, Al, Au, Bi,
was not available, relevant information was searched in literature. On average, data on Co, Cu, Fe, Ge, Hg, In, Ir, Os, Pd, Pt, Rh, Ru, Sb.
e-waste formally collected and recycled refer to the year 2016. For all countries, data
for 2019 were nowcasted by using recycling and collection rates in the available time Quantification of BFR found in E-waste
series and multiplying that with the e-waste generated data. The calculations were Composition data relative to Brominated Flame Retardant plastics were searched for in
conducted for the countries for which there was at least one data point available. The the literature, and relevant information was found in (Chen et al. 2012; Abbasi 2015;
results of the UNSD and OECD questionnaires and pilot questionnaires were used to Yu et al. 2017). Similarly to the raw materials found in e-waste, composition data on
compile the global totals on e-waste collection and recycling in this report. BRF were linked to the estimated amount of e-waste generated.
102 Annex 2. M ethodology

Quantification of mercury found in E-waste
The amount of mercury found in e-waste was calculated by linking the composition
data from ProSUM to the estimated amount of e-waste (Huisman et al. 2017).
Quantification of savings of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (primary vs

secondary production)
Estimates of GHG emissions per kg of produced metal in the case of primary and
secondary production were sourced from Van der Voet et al. 2019 and multiplied by
the amount of metals (iron, aluminium and copper) estimated to be recycled globally
in 2019.
Quantification of GHG missions for refrigerants

The scope of this research is to estimate the amount of CO 2 equivalents that could
potentially be released into the atmosphere if cooling and freezing equipment (and,
thus, the refrigerants contained in the appliances) were not recycled and treated in
an environmentally sound way.
A literature review was conducted to assess the amount and type of refrigerants used
in cooling and freezing equipment. Relevant information was found for fridges and air
conditioners in Duan et al. 2018. Subsequently, the amount of refrigerants was linked
to the estimated amount of waste fridges and air conditioners generated by each of
the 181 countries analyzed, as well as by year. Lastly, the Global Warming Potential
(GWP) was researched for each type of refrigerant and linked the amount of
refrigerants found in fridges and air conditioners. It was discovered that in fridges, the
refrigerants R-11 and R-12 were used until 1994; they were then substituted with R-
134a and R-22 until 2017. Since 2017, only R-152a and R1234yf have been used. In air
conditioners, R-410a, R-134a, and R-22 were used until 2017, and the R-32 and R-
1234yf have been used since.
Annex 2. M ethodology 103

Annex 3
Country E-waste
Key Statistics
104
Country Region E-waste E-waste E-waste documen- National e-waste le-
generated (kt) generated ted to be collected gislation/policy or
(2019) (kg per and recycled (kt) regulation in place
capita)
(2019)
Afghanistan Asia 23 0.6 NA No
Albania Europe 21 7.4 NA (66) Yes
Algeria Africa 309 7.1 NA No
Angola Africa 125 4.2 NA No
Antigua and Barbuda Americas 1.2 12.7 NA (66) No
Argentina Americas 465 10.3 11 (2013)(40) Yes
Armenia Asia 17 5.8 NA (66) No
Aruba Americas 2.2 19.3 NA No
Australia Oceania 554 21.7 58 (2018)(41) Yes
Austria Europe 168 18.8 117 (2017)(42) Yes
Azerbaijan Asia 80 8.0 NA No
Bahamas Americas 6.6 17.2 NA No
Bahrain Asia 24 15.9 NA No
Bangladesh Asia 199 1.2 NA No
Barbados Americas 3.6 12.7 NA No
Belarus Europe 88 9.3 6.2 (2017)(43) Yes
Belgium Europe 234 20.4 128 (2016)(42) Yes

Annex 3. Country E-waste Key Statistics 105
capita)
(2019)
Belize Americas 2.4 5.8 NA No
Benin Africa 9.4 0.8 NA No
Bhutan Asia 3.4 4.0 NA No
Bolivia Americas 41 3.6 NA Yes

(Plurinational State of)
Bosnia and Herzegovina Europe 27 7.8 NA (66) Yes
Botswana Africa 19 7.9 NA No
Brazil Americas 2143 10.2 0.14 (2012)(44) No
Brunei Darussalam Asia 8.7 19.7 NA No
Bulgaria Europe 82 11.7 54.5 (2017)(42) Yes
Burkina Faso Africa 13 0.6 NA No
Burundi Africa 5.3 0.5 NA No
Cabo Verde Africa 2.8 4.9 NA (66) No
Cambodia Asia 19 1.1 NA Yes
Cameroon Africa 26 1.0 0.05 (2018)(45) Yes
Canada Americas 757 20.2 101 (2016)(46) Yes
Central African Republic Africa 2.5 0.5 NA No
106 Annex 3. Country E-waste Key Statistics

capita)
(2019)
Chad Africa 10 0.8 NA No
Chile Americas 186 9.9 5.5 (2017)(47) Yes
China Asia 10129 7.2 1546 (2018)(48) Yes
China, Hong Kong Special Asia 153 20.2 55.8 (2013)(49) Yes
Administrative Region
China, Macao Special Asia 12 18.1 NA Yes

Administrative Region
Colombia Americas 318 6.3 2.7 (2014)(46) Yes
Comoros Africa 0.6 0.7 NA No
Congo Africa 18 4.0 NA No
Costa Rica Americas 51 10.0 NA Yes
Côte d'Ivoire Africa 30 1.1 NA Yes
Croatia Europe 48 11.9 36 (2017)(42) Yes
Cyprus Asia 15 16.8 2.5 (2016)(42) Yes
Czech Republic Europe 167 15.7 91 (2017)(42) Yes
Denmark Europe 130 22.4 70 (2017)(42) Yes
Djibouti Africa 1.1 1.0 NA No

capita)
(2019)
Dominica Americas 0.6 7.9 NA No
Dominican Republic Americas 67 6.4 NA No
Ecuador Americas 99 5.7 0.005 (2017)(43) Yes
Egypt Africa 586 5.9 NA Yes
El Salvador Americas 37 5.5 0.56 (2012)(50) No
Eritrea Africa 3.4 0.6 NA No
Estonia Europe 17 13.1 13 (2017)(42) Yes
Ethiopia Africa 55 0.6 NA No
Fiji Oceania 5.4 6.1 NA No
Finland Europe 110 19.8 65 (2017)(42) Yes
France Europe 1362 21.0 742 (2017)(42) Yes
Gabon Africa 18 8.7 NA No
Gambia (Republic of) Africa 2.7 1.2 NA No
Georgia Asia 27 7.3 NA No
Germany Europe 1607 19.4 837 (2017)(42) Yes
Ghana Africa 53 1.8 NA Yes
Greece Europe 181 16.9 56 (2017)(42) Yes

capita)
(2019)
Grenada Americas 1.0 8.8 NA No
Guatemala Americas 75 4.3 NA No
Guinea Africa 11 0.8 NA No
Guinea-Bissau Africa 1.0 0.5 NA No
Guyana Americas 5.0 6.3 NA No
Honduras Americas 25 2.6 0.2 (2015)(51) No
Hungary Europe 133 13.6 63 (2017)(42) Yes
Iceland Europe 7.6 21.4 5.3 (2017)(42) Yes
India Asia 3230 2.4 30 (2016)(52) Yes
Indonesia Asia 1618 6.1 NA No
Iran (Islamic Republic of) Asia 790 9.5 NA Yes
Iraq Asia 278 7.1 NA No
Ireland Europe 93 18.7 52 (2017)(42) Yes
Israel Asia 132 14.5 NA Yes
Italy Europe 1063 17.5 369 (2016)(42) Yes
Jamaica Americas 18 6.2 0.05 (2017)(53) No
Japan Asia 2569 20.4 570 (2017)(46) Yes

capita)
(2019)
Jordan Asia 55 5.4 1.3 (2018)(54) Yes
Kazakhstan Asia 172 9.2 10 (2017)(43) No
Kenya Africa 51 1.0 NA Yes
Kiribati Oceania 0.1 0.9 NA No
Kuwait Asia 74 15.8 NA No
Kyrgyzstan Asia 10 1.5 NA No
Lao People's Asia 17 2.5 NA No

Democratic Republic
Latvia Europe 20 10.6 9.3 (2017)(42) Yes
Lebanon Asia 50 8.2 NA No
Lesotho Africa 2.3 1.1 NA No
Libya Africa 76 11.5 NA No
Lithuania Europe 34 12.3 13 (2017)(42) Yes
Luxembourg Europe 12 18.9 6.1 (2017)(42) Yes
Madagascar Africa 15 0.6 NA Yes
Malawi Africa 10 0.5 NA No
Malaysia Asia 364 11.1 NA Yes

capita)
(2019)
Maldives Asia 3.4 9.1 NA No
Mali Africa 15 0.8 NA No
Malta Europe 6.8 14.5 1.7 (2016)(42) Yes
Mauritania Africa 6.4 1.4 NA No
Mauritius Africa 13 10.1 2 (2011)(55) No
Mexico Americas 1220 9.7 36 (2014)(46) Yes
Micronesia (Federated Oceania 0.2 1.9 NA No

States of)
Mongolia Asia 17 5.2 NA Yes
Montenegro Europe 6.7 10.7 NA Yes
Morocco Africa 164 4.6 NA No
Mozambique Africa 17 0.5 NA No
Myanmar Asia 82 1.6 NA No
Namibia Africa 16 6.4 0.05 (2018)(56) No
Nepal Asia 28 0.9 NA No
Netherlands Europe 373 21.6 166 (2017)(42) Yes
New Zealand Oceania 96 19.2 NA No

capita)
(2019)
Nicaragua Americas 16 2.5 NA No
Niger Africa 9.3 0.5 NA No
Nigeria Africa 461 2.3 NA Yes
North Macedonia Europe 16 7.9 NA Yes
Norway Europe 139 26.0 99 (2017)(42) Yes
Oman Asia 69 15.8 NA No
Pakistan Asia 433 2.1 NA No
Palau Oceania 0.2 9.1 NA No
Panama Americas 40 9.4 NA No
Papua New Guinea Oceania 9.2 1.1 NA No
Paraguay Americas 51 7.1 NA No
Peru Americas 204 6.3 2.7 (2017)(57) Yes
Philippines Asia 425 3.9 NA No
Poland Europe 443 11.7 246 (2017)(42) Yes
Portugal Europe 170 16.6 70 (2017)(42) Yes
Qatar Asia 37 13.6 NA No
Republic of Korea Asia 818 15.8 292 (2017)(46) Yes

capita)
(2019)
Republic of Moldova Europe 14 4.0 NA Yes
Romania Europe 223 11.4 47 (2016)(42) Yes
Russian Federation Europe 1631 11.3 90 (2014)(58) No
Rwanda Africa 7.0 0.6 0.7 (2018)(59) Yes
Saint Kitts and Nevis Americas 0.7 12.4 NA No
Saint Lucia Americas 1.7 9.7 0.03 (2015)(60) No
Saint Vincent and the Gre- Americas 0.9 8.3 NA No

nadines
Samoa Oceania 0.6 3.1 NA No
Sao Tome and Principe Africa 0.3 1.5 NA Yes
Saudi Arabia Asia 595 17.6 NA No
Senegal Africa 20 1.2 NA No
Serbia Europe 65 9.4 13 (2015)(61) Yes
Seychelles Africa 1.2 12.6 NA No
Sierra Leone Africa 4.2 0.5 NA No
Singapore Asia 113 19.9 NA Yes
Slovakia Europe 70 12.8 30 (2017)(42) Yes

capita)
(2019)
Slovenia Europe 31 15.1 12 (2016)(42) Yes
Solomon Islands Oceania 0.5 0.8 NA No
South Africa Africa 416 7.1 18 (2015)(62) Yes
Spain Europe 888 19.0 287 (2017)(42) Yes
Sri Lanka Asia 138 6.3 Yes
Sudan Africa 90 2.1 NA No
Suriname Americas 5.6 9.4 NA No
Swaziland Africa 7.0 6.3 NA No
Sweden Europe 208 20.1 142 (2017)(42) Yes
Switzerland Europe 201 23.4 123 (2017)(46) Yes
Syrian Arab Republic Asia 91 5.2 NA No
Thailand Asia 621 9.2 NA Yes
Timor-Leste Asia 3.8 2.9 NA No
Togo Africa 7.5 0.9 NA No
Tonga Oceania 0.3 3.3 NA No
Trinidad and Tobago Americas 22 15.7 NA No

capita)
(2019)
Tunisia Africa 76 6.4 NA No
Turkey Asia 847 10.2 125 (2015)(63) Yes
Turkmenistan Asia 39 6.5 NA No
Tuvalu Oceania 0.0 1.5 NA No
Uganda Africa 32 0.8 0.18 (2018)(64) Yes
Ukraine Europe 324 7.7 40 (2017)(43) Yes
United Arab Emirates Asia 162 15.0 NA No
UK of Great Britain and Europe 1598 23.9 871 (2017)(42) Yes

Northern Ireland
United Republic of Africa 50 1.0 NA Yes

Tanzania
United States of America Americas 6918 21.0 1020 (2017)(65) Yes
Uruguay Americas 37 10.5 NA No
Vanuatu Oceania 0.3 1.1 NA No
Venezuela (Bolivarian Americas 300 10.7 NA No

Republic of)
Viet Nam Asia 257 2.7 NA No

capita)
(2019)
Yemen Asia 48 1.5 NA No
Zambia Africa 19 1.0 NA Yes
Zimbabwe Africa 17 1.1 0.03 (2017)(43) No
Total Questionnaires(66) 18.4 (~2015)(66)

The Global E-waste Monitor 2020
118
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3
What is EEE and E-waste? Global E-waste Key Statistics How E-waste Data Contribute
to the SDGs

Measuring E-waste Statistics Worldwide Harmonisation by the Legislation on E-waste and the
Global E-waste Statistics Partnership Issue of Transboundary Movement

The potential of Circular Economy E-waste Impact on the Health of Regional E-waste Key Statistics
for E-waste Workers and Children
119
ISBN Digital: 978-92-808-9114-0

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The Global E-waste

Contributions by: S. Adrian, M. Brune Drisse, Y. Cheng, L. Devia, O. Deubzer,

Chapter 1. What is EEE and E-waste? ................................................................................. 16

Chapter 2. Global E-waste Key Statistics ..........................................................................20

Chapter 3. How E-waste Data Contribute to the SDGs ..................................................28

Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics ..........................................................................32

Chapter 5. Worldwide Harmonisation by the Global E-waste Statistics

Chapter 6. E-waste Legislation and Transboundary Movement ...............................50

Chapter 7. The Potential of E-waste in a Circular Economy .......................................56

Chapter 8. E-waste Impact on the Health of Children and Workers ........................62

Chapter 9. Regional E-waste Key Statistics .....................................................................68

About the Authors .................................................................................................................... 94

Annex 1: UNU-KEYS and Link to E-waste Categories ...................................................96

This monitor provides the most comprehensive Urbanization

still exported illegally or under the guise of being

8% into waste bins

18 C hapter 1. What is EEE and E-

2. Screens and monitors: 5. S mall equipment:

3. Lamps: 6. Small IT and Telecommunication equipment:

C hapter 1. What is EEE and E- 19

2.8 3.6 4.5 5.3 5.0

51.581 21.697 9.874 3.503 1.261

16 0.4 8 0.2 6 0.1 6 0.01 4 0.001

0.4 1.4 0.1 1.2 0.03 1 0.01 0.9 0.003 0.6

Fridges Laptops Lamps Washing machines Microwaves Mobile phone

22 Chapter 2. Global E-waste Key Statistics

2014 2019 2030

th 17.4% | 9.3 82.6% | 44.3 43.7 Mt of e-waste is unknown; this e-waste is

0.6 Mt is estimated to end up in waste bins in EU

Chapter 2. Global E-waste Key Statistics 23

2023 8.0 61.3 2023

2029 8.9 72.9 2029

(Futur quence s rel ated to he Covid-19 crisis)

24 Chapter 2. Global E-waste Key Statistics

12 Mt (16.2 kg per capita)

Chapter 2. Global E-waste Key Statistics 25

44% 66% 71%

61 countries 67 countries 78 countries

26 Chapter 2. Global E-waste Key Statistics

30 Chapter 3. How E-waste Data Contribute to the SDGs

Indicator 12.4.2: Treatment of waste, generation of hazardous waste, and hazardous

Target 12.5: By 2030, substantially reduce waste generation through prevention,

Indicator 12.5.1 National recycling rate and tons of material recycled.

Chapter 3. How E-waste Data Contribute to the SDGs 31

Reduce e-waste Promote Quantify the magnitude of Set appropriate collection

34 Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics

Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics 35

Production 1. Market Entry 2. Use phase, including 3. E-waste

36 Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics

The e-waste generated is usually

Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics 37

The “formal collection” activities usually fall under

38 Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics

In this scenario, the holder directly disposes of e-

Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics 39

In countries that have developed waste management

40 Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics

In most developing countries, a significant number of

Chapter 4. Measuring E-waste Statistics 41